[ 冠詞 | 名詞 | 動詞 | 不定詞 | 前置詞 | 形容詞 ] [ 参考 ]

ハイフォネーション (hyphenation)

Ex. com·pre·hen·sive

N concentration (TN and NH4⁺) of Sph site as original mire showed the lower than other three sites, and Bare site showed the highest NH4⁺ concentration of the three sites.

germinated seedlings

shoots and litter sprouts ...

論文を英語で書くために

条件Aを加えると反応はうまくいかなかった
→ The reaction did not progress well when A was added.

日本人が気をつけるべき用法usage

1. 冠詞 a (an), the
2. 前置詞
3. 句読点 punctuation: comma (,), period (.), colon (:), semi-colon (;), hyphen (-), dash (-), apostrophe (')
4. 副詞: 文中での位置
5. 関係代名詞・関係副詞

心得 (日本語だって)

実は、上に書いたことはNativeでも悩むのだ。下の分は、Jonに論文見てね、とメールして、直してくれた添付ファイル付メールについてたメッセージ。でもね、これらは、日本語だって、悩むでしょ。思い出すと、ワシントン大学にいる時にJonに論文見てもらったら、「ちょっと、こっち来てくれ」というから、行ったら、一対一で、文章直されてるのはいいんだが、声を出して原稿を読みながら、"... Need 'the'"とか言いながら、文章直してもらってた。で、冠詞は難しいのか、と聞いたら、"Everytimes"と返事されて、そうなのね、と思った記憶がある。結局、日本語がデタラメなら、英語もデタラメになるのは必然なのだ。

Hi Shiro,
Attached is your manuscript. I hope I have improved it -- I am sure that I made some mistakes. I am still worried about tense and commas. Please feel free to ask about anything I changed. I am sorry for when I did not understand what you were trying to say. Please feel free to send it to me again.
... 以下は、オバマ政権に関する内容なので削除 ...
Jon

小林 (2003)

(英語)表現のポイント

1. 長い文章避ける (声に出し読んだ時に息が切れれば長すぎ)
2. 冗漫な回りくどい表現は避ける (受動態を避ける)
3. 明快で具体的な用語を使う
4. 力強く的確な動詞を使う
5. 読者が誰かを念頭に置く
6. 文章表現の向上には推敲が不可欠
7. 多種多様な文献を読む

表現

英語と米語はかなり違うので、意識して書くべき。少なくとも、私は英語はよく分からない。カナダで、セントレ・メートレ・カラウラーとか書いてあったが、あれはcenter, meter, colorのことかしら。論文でよく使うanalyzeはanalyseだったし。ということで、いろんな人が書いた論文を切り貼りして論文を作ると、何が起こるか想像して欲しい。例えれば、茨城弁と大阪弁と鹿児島弁をごちゃまぜにした文章ができあがることになる。自分なりの文章が書けるようでないといけない。この前、西オーストラリア大の人に論文見てもらったらfavorがfavourと直されてたのは悲しかったが。

スタイル

涙目になる瞬間... 口語文は、発音に合わせるので、短縮形が使われることがあるというのは、中学校あたりでやったような。論文で、左の形は見たことないと思うんだけど。

don't → do not
doesn't → does not
can't → can not / cannot
その他諸々...

There is no significant effect ...
結果で、こう書かれるとしょんぼりする。There were no significant effects on ...だと思うけど。

1. 意図的ではない頭韻 Ex. with bundle bans bending, rather regularly radial
2. sの繰り返し Ex. such a sense of success
3. sを必要としない語につける Ex. towards, forwards
4. シラブルの反復 Ex. appropriate approach, continue to contain, protection in connection with infection
5. 音調繰り返し Ex. found around, elaborate laboratory facilities, with respect to the effect
6. 同根語反復 Ex. a locality located, the following procedure should be followed, except for rare exceptions
7. 意味を変え言葉を繰り返す。Ex. a point to point out

バランス

語順

これすごいな(もっとあるけど、自分が具合悪くなる)

　今年(2010年冬記す)は、最強だ。皆目分からんのが続く。

The data of their studies showed nothing was difference more than the difference of species on the effects of UV absorbing substances, i.e., there were no relationships between succession sere and UV sensitivity, given the UV sbsorbance.

1. dataはdatumの複数なんで、wasはwere (もっとも、最近は単数扱いを認めてる雑誌も増えてるんで構わないが)。
2. 文語的にshowedの後にはthatを入れないと。論文では、省略しない。
3. differenceはdifferent。Nothing was differenceを訳すと、「何もないのは違わない。」、それはそうだが。
4. 綴りは間違えてるし。
5. あとは、分からん。よって、ポイ。

単語を並べればよいといものではない

• At high altitude severe climates ...
• All though these treatment, the significant differences of germination pattern between D. anglica and D. rotundifolia.

対句法 parallelism

文 (sentence)

構造

• 単文 simple sentence: 1つの「主語 + 述部」 The dog barked.
• 重文 compound sentence: 複数の単文 A stranger knocked at the door, and the dog barked.
• 複文 complex sentence: 従位接続詞結合 = 主節 + 従属接続詞
  Everybody knows [that + I am poor.] [従属接続詞 + 名詞節・形容詞節・副詞節]
• 混文 mixed sentence: 重文/複文混じる It was getting dark, and when a stranger knocked at the door, the dog barked.
• 省略文 elliptical sentence: (I will) See you again.

意味

1. 平叙文 declarative sentence: 事実をそのまま述べる
   a. 肯定文 affirmative sentence
   b. 否定文 negative sentence
2. 疑問文 interrogative sentence: 物事を尋ねる
   受け方: this/that → it, these/those → they
3. 命令文 imperative sentence: 命令や依頼を表す
4. 感嘆文 exclamatory sentence: (強い)感情を表す - 論文に不要

文型 (林 1977)

1. S + V: I cry for you.
2. S + V + C: Life is very short.
3. S + V + O: It took a long time.
4. S + V + IO + DO: I can show you a better time.
5. S + V + O + C (or OC): You made me glad.

He gave her a nice present. ⇒ He gave a nice present to her.
Father bought me a bicycle. ⇒ Father bought a bicycle for me.

節 clause

等位節

主節と従(属)節

複文の従節 = 名詞節、形容詞節、副詞節

That he will succeed_nnc is certaion.

That you are honest _S is true. → It is true that you are honest.

原則: that clauseは前置詞の目的語に用いない。例外: but, except, in, saveの目的語
They are exactly the same except that one speaks a little faster than the other.

This is the proof that you are honest. = I am sure (of the fact) that you are honest.
if: -かどうか(ということ) Ex. I don't know if you are honest.
whether - [or not (no)]: -か否か(ということ) Ex. I don't know whether you are honest (or not).

= It - if [whether] … ⇒ It is not known (for me) if [whether] you are honest (or not).

Ex. I know the man _←who wrote this book_ajd.

1. 目的語になる関係代名詞を省く
   This is the very book I want to read.
2. 補語になる関係代名詞を省く
   I am not the man I used to be.
3. 関係副詞を省く
   This is the place a big dam will be built.
4. [there (here) + be動詞]で始まる節に関係代名詞を省く
   He taught me the difference there is between culture and snobbery.

When he called on me_adc→, I was watching TV.
I read this book while you were out. → While you were out, I read this book.

where: (場所) Ex. The accident occurred where the road curved sharply to the left. (場合) Where there is a will there is a way. 意志のあるところに道は開ける
wherever: (強化)(譲歩)

when: -する時に
while: -する(している)間に

(just) as: (丁度)-する時に [as = when, while]

whenever: -する時はいつも(強化), たとえいつ-しても(譲歩)
every time (= each time) (接続詞的に用いることもある)

Every time he speaks English, he cries. 彼は英語を話す度に、泣く

once: 一度-すると(すれば、したからには) [副詞的]

Once you hesitate you are lost. 一度躊躇すれば君はもうだめだ。

now (that): 今や-してみると(したからには) [thatのない時に注意] → 「時」 + 「理由」

I (had) tired for a long time before I succeeded.
had not + p.p. + before -: ~しないうちに-した
not - till (until): ~して初めて-

We do not realize the value of health until we lose it. [強調構文 It is not until - that ~ Ex. It was not until I saw him that I was reminded of my promise.]

because > since > as
I like his speech because it is inspiring.
not - because ~: ~だから(といって)-ではない

I do not like his speech because it is instructive. 私は彼の演説が有益だからというので好きなのではない

not because - but because ~: ~だからではなくて-だから
partly because - partly because ~

I like his speech partly because it is inspiring, and partly because of its humor.

It is ten years since he went to America.
Since you ask, I must tell you. 君が聞くからには、私は言わねばならぬ

As it is so late, we had better get a taxi. 非常に遅いので、タクシーに乗る方がよいだろう
as ~, so …: ~であるように … である

As the touchstone tries gold, so gold tries men. 試金石が黄金を試すように、黄金が人を試す

A is to B as (what) C is to D: AのBに対する関係は、CがDに対する関係と同じである ⇒ 比例 A:B = C:D

Water is to fishes, as (what) air is to men.

As C is to D, so is A to B: CがDに対するように、AはBに対している

As air is to men, so is water to fishes.

It is in (with) A as in (with) B: Aの場合はBの場合と同じ

It is in studying as in eating; he who does it gets the benefit and not he who sees it done. 勉学はちょうど食事をするのと同じ様なもので、実際それをする人が利益を受け、それを見ている人ではない

He was angry, for his voice was harsh. 彼は怒っていた、というのは声が荒々しかったからだ。× 声が荒々しかったから怒っていた。

Seeing (that) he refused to help us, we need not now help him. 彼は我々を手伝うことを拒否したからには、我々は彼を手伝う必要はない

1) In that you are busy, let me tell you briefly. 君は忙しいので、簡単に言おう
2) Men differ from brutes in that they can think and speak. 人は考え話すということで獣と違う

He wishes to resign on the ground that his health is failing. → … on the ground of his failing health.

Not that I am unwilling but that I have no time. 気が進まないからではなくて、時間がないからだ

What with teaching, and (what with) writing, he wore himself out.教えることや書くことで彼は疲れてしまった

句 phrase

構造

1. 前置詞句 ___ I found the book on the desk.
2. 不定詞句 ___ I should like to read that book. (目的・理由・原因など)
3. 動名詞句 ___ I do not like smoking in the hall.
4. 分詞句 ___ Strictly speaking, this is not correct.

機能

1. 名詞句 noun phrase ___ Writing a letter is my weak point.
2. 形容詞句 adjective phrase ___ The man writing a letter is our teacher.
   名詞 → 形容詞句[限定] A stitch in time saves nine.
   S + V + C(形容詞句) [叙述] Quality is of greater value than quantity. → This is a book of greater value than that. [限定]
3. 副詞句 adverb phrase ___ She was seated at the desk, writing a letter (or to write a letter).

名詞・名詞句 ⇒ 節 の関係

He denied his guilty. → He denied (that) he was guilty.

I was informed of his failure in the attempt. → I was informed (that) he had failed in the attempt.

He is sure of success. → He is sure (that) he will succeed.

None of the leaders realized the difficulty of the work. → None of the leaders realized how difficult the work was.

I ask Susan about the pronunciation of the word. → I ask Susan how you pronounce the word.

The scientist was proud of his knowledge. → The scientist was proud of the knowledge that he had.

It was found that等、読者に発見者を惑わす表現 (同様the author(s), the writer(s)避ける)

無生物主語

1. 条件 -によって
2. 手段 -すれば。
3. 原因・理由 -なので
4. その他 (適当な訳)

Storms make oaks take deep root. 樫の木は幾度か嵐にあうので根が深くつく。
The problem caught general attention. その問題に誰も注意をひかれた。
Nothing will make him work; the mere idea of work makes him shudder.

形式主語

× Here is warm. × This part is warm.

× This morning is colder than yesterday morning.

Cf. It snowed heavily. = We had a heavy snow.
It takes long for ... to ~: It took long for the child to be found. It did not take long for new troubles to arise.

関係詞節が主語

What is done s cannot be undone. してしまったことは、やり直せない。
Whatever you read is laid up in your mind. 君が読んだことは皆、君の頭に蓄えられる。

Where he lives s is a long way off from the town.

疑問詞節

Who said so s does not concern me. ⇒ Who said so? (主語疑問詞)
What he really means s is not understood. ⇒ What does he really mean? (目的語疑問詞)

When and where he was born s is a mystery. ⇒ When and where was he born?

It doesn't matter which he will choose.
If the counsel is good, it matters little who gave it.

一致の法則 (主語と動詞の呼応)

Mathematics is the subject that I hate most.
Mumps is a disease caused by virus.

Four kilometers is a good distance for a walk.
Tow hours is enough to finish the repair.

Three fourths of the earth surface is water.
Two thirds of the French public is against the US attack on Iraq. (個々人を強調) ↔

Two thirds of the French public is against the US attack on Iraq. (国というまとまりを意識)

The poet an stateman is dead. 詩人かつ政治家が死んだ
Bread and butter is good. バターつきパンは良い

Each boy and girl has a flag in his or her hand.
Every hour and every minutes is important.
No desk and no chair was brought in.

I, and not he, am to go.
He, and not I, is to be chosen.

To get up late and to be idle all day is his habit.

Two from five leaves three.
Four divided by two makes two.

用法

They called me a liar.

The noise woke the baby.
He told the children an amusing story.

The girl_←with blue eyes_形容詞句 is Betty.

種類

datas are not available - datumの複数形がdataだけど、dataのさらなる複数形がdatasなのかしら
an excess zeros - どっちなの

人称・単数複数

Thus, the elevational gradient that cause gradient in air temperature, growth period, wind intensity can be ...
博士終わってもこれだもんなー。せめて、Thus, the elevational gradient that causes gradients in air temperature, growth period and wind intensity can be ...だよね。[学位]...取り消すか。
Mean canopy radius of L. kaempferi that were ...
もういいよね。ちなみにradiusの複数形はradii
R. alba overstory provides the safe sites for M. japonica seedling emergence, and have no inhibitive effect on ...
節と節での人称や時制は合わせよう。
Principal stresses affecting seedling establishment changes seasonally ...
Seed-sowing experiment allow to exam all of them.
この位にしておこうかな。といった感じだけど、直さなかった(直せなかった)ところは正しいと思ってる人もいるようだし。ほっといたら、examもそのままなのかな。困ったものだ。

可算名詞 countable noun

普通名詞 common noun

1. 単数 + 's'
2. 's'音 (s, z, ch, sh, x) で終わる名詞 + 'es' (発音便宜上): 'es' 独立音節 Ex. one church, two churches; one box, two boxes.
3. 特別複数形(個別に覚えるしかない)
   (a) 古英語が残る Ex. men (man), feet (foot) women (women), teeth (tooth), feet (foot), children (child), mice (mouse), people (person)
   (b) ラテン・ギリシア語起源(科学用語に多) Ex. stimulus (pl. –li), phenomenon (pl. –na), axis (pl. –es)

   ネイティブも間違い易い Ex. nucleus → 現在ではnucleuses, nuclei両方使用可

4. 子音 + 'y' → 'y'を'i'にかえ、'es'をつけ、複数を作る。Ex. city, cities; lady, ladies
   母音 + 'y'は's'のみ Ex. boys, days, keys, toys (無音母音のあるmonkey, valleyも's')
5. 'f'/'fe' → 'f'を'v'に変え、's'/'es'をつける。 Ex. leaf, leaves; wife, wives
   (例外の)例外: roof, safe (金庫), chiefは's'
6. 語尾’o’の複数形: 単に’s’(米語傾向) - 少数の英語’es’ Ex. potato, potatoes; tomato, tomatoes
   古英語起源 Ex. potato, tomato → potatoes, tomatoesと'es'で複数形
   仏・伊・西語起源(音楽関係多): solo, cello, piano → solos, cellos, pianosと's'で複数形

   ⇒ 米語: 複数形の綴りを's'にまとめる動き Ex. cargo, heroは両方の綴りが見られる

   「子音+o」で終わる名詞は「oes」もあるが、radio等「母音+o」で終わる名詞は全て's'
7. 単数・複数同形(単複同型)
   deer, sheep, fish, squid, moose, salmon, Japanese (群れる生物)
   speciesは要注意
   three dominat species in the post-mined peatland (Rhynchospora alba, Moliniopsis japonica, Phragmites australis) was used for ...
   主節が長くなると、そのうち主語がどれなのか分からなくなる。また、主節を短くした方が読みやすい。
8. 注意
   a) 2つのplural formをとり意味が異なるもの

   formula: formulae = 数式 / formulas = 数式・処方, index (indices) = 指数 / indexes = 索引

   b) 単数複数で意味が異なる
   c) 単数形がない名詞: 対で使用するもの

   trousers (英), pants (米 = ズボン、英 = 下着), scissors, pliers (ペンチ), glasses (眼鏡)
   I bought some scissors. Please would you pass me the pliers.
   I bought a pair of trousers. He bought a pair of sunglasses

集合名詞 collective noun

cattle, poultry, kindred

不可算名詞 (uncountable noun)

on the ground surface by shade of tussock litters
shadeも嫌だけど。

Litter accumulation greatly influences seedbank compositions by

The tolerances of these seasonal stresses
これは、The tolerances to these seasonal stressesとしたとしてもseasonalって何なんでしょうね。tolerancesを辞書を引くと「公差」という意味では使うらしい。

固有名詞 proper noun

1. 人・国・街路・市・町名を単独で固有名詞として使う時は無冠詞
   I live in New York City on the corner of Broadway and 76th St.
   I heard that Mr. Smith was going to Russia, England, and France.
2. これらの固有名詞が 他の名詞を修飾する形容詞となる - 冠詞つける
   Mexico has a warm climate. → The Mexican climate is warm.
   Chicago is a large city. → The Chicago fire was a large one.
3. 固有名詞が、大河・海・山脈・国等の構成員(物)とし、それらを特定する機能もつ時、定冠詞必要
   The Mississippi River, the Ural Mountains, the Pacific Ocean, the United States, the Soviet Union, the Dominican Republic

Cambridge university pressはない。Hokkaido UniversityをHokkaido universityと書いているようなもので
Toyotomi townもToyotomi Townにして欲しい。ただし、the city of Sapporoのcityのcは小文字ね。
San diegoはSan Diegoでしょ。

Appalachian sphagnum bogと書いてるが、Sphagnumは、属名なので頭文字は大文字にし、雑誌によるが、学名を普通はイタリックにしてAppalachian Sphagnum bogとするのが正しい

25 April 2006 vs September 17 2007
米国では日常はSept. 17, 2007と表記することが多いが、論文(公的文書)のときはそうでもないことがある(投稿規程に書いてあったりする)。

物質名詞 material noun

1. 対で使う: scissors, spectacles, tongs, tweezers
2. 理論上複数: a beam of protons, a group of crystals, data, distribution of eddy currents, X-rays
3. 集合概念: contents, goods, suburbs

抽象名詞 abstract noun

Will you have the goodness to lend me the book? = Will you be good enough to lend me the book?

it is no use (= useless) to me.

She told the story in earnest (= earnestly).
He did it with care (= carefully).

不可算名詞 ⇔ 可算名詞

不可算名詞 ⇒ 可算名詞化

種類を表すhe is good critic - of cheep wines
作(製)品・個々のものをさす how many papers do you takes? 新聞, Three coffees, please コーヒー3杯

のような人 He is a Newton of our day.
という人 There is a Mr. Ito wants to see you.
という製品・特産 She bought a hover at supermarket.

knowledge 知識 → a good knowledge
memory 記憶 → a short memory

可算名詞 ⇒ 不可算名詞化

a school → go to school (学習), a church → go to church (礼拝), a bed → go to bed (就寝)

Ex. uncle, father, mother = 家族･親族. Captain Smith, Professor Ogata = 職･称号. Next Sunday, last Saturday = 習慣. Contents, Introduction = 標準・掲示. Wayout 短縮を要する語句

純粋可算名詞(不可算表現)

純粋不可算名詞(可算表現)

人称代名詞 (personal pronoun)

Itの(特別)用法

It is a sunny day.
It seems that he has caught cold.

I_S found_V it_O hard_C to walk in the deep snow_{real O}.
It ... that: 強調構文 → 論文英語では多用避ける

所有代名詞 (possessive pronoun)

再帰代名詞 (reflexive pronoun)

指示代名詞 (demonstrative pronoun)

不定代名詞 (indefinite pronoun)

I don't like these ties.
Show me others (↔ Show me another.) × Show me other.

複合不定代名詞

疑問代名詞 (interrogative pronoun)

I don't know what to answer.
I am at a loss when and how to begin and where to end.
I can't decide whether to go or not.

慣用構文

What about playing golf tomorrow?

What if my father should not consent?
What if you fail this time? What though we are poor?

I'll tell you what (it is). I'm going to marry next month.

指示代名詞 demonstrative pronoun

a hierarchical bayesian model ↔ an HBM (発音すれば分かる)
same → the same (ほぼ確実にtheがいる)

語感三態

rain in Spain: 最も一般的表現: Rain tends to fall only very lightly in south central Spain.

a rain in Spain: ある種の一例: There was a nice, soft rain last night.

the rain in Spain: 他と違うものとして限定: The rain in England has been rather colder, but the rain in Spain was unexpectedly warm.

不可算(物質・抽象)名詞の冠詞

Gold is an important metal. Honesty is always the best policy.

The gold in this ring is very old. The honesty of Mr. Smith is above question.

定冠詞 the (that)

1. 一度話題となった
2. 種類一般
3. 抽象名詞
4. 序数に
5. 特定固有名詞に

不定冠詞 a, an (one)

1. 1つ
2. 種類一般
   A dog is a faithful animal. (どの犬も …) → The dog is … と置いてもよい
3. ~につき, ~毎に
   some, aboutとして数詞の前に添える Ex. a fine years, a sixty miles, Butter is \380 a pound.
4. 普通名詞化した物質名詞・抽象名詞に
   固有名詞の前
   1. 同名の場所・人がたくさんある場合 He is an American (an Englishman).
   2. 家族・宗教・党派の一員 He is a democrat (a Buddhist).
   3. 固有名詞が普通名詞に転用された場合 He owns two Van Goughs and a Picasso.

1) 不定冠詞がbookの前に使われ、特定の本を指さず一般的な本である
2) 特定の本を指定し、その前に定冠詞を付け他の全ての本から from all other books 区別する

The book which is on the table belongs to me.
The books which are on the table belong to me.

= 複数名詞を一般的に使う時、冠詞は使わない
There is a book on the table. (No particular book).
There are books on the table. (No particular books).
There are many books and several magazines on the table.

Temperature (温度)

1. at a low temperature - 低い温度では不定冠詞
2. 日々の温度の平均変化では温度は限定されない → 冠詞不用
   the average daily change of temperatures - 限定された温度

   the distillation temperature was, the melting temperature was, the reaction temperature was

3. water begins to boil at a temperature of 100°C – 習慣的にa

無冠詞

法 mode

動詞 verb

完全自動詞: 補語不要 ⇒ (I) S + V
不完全自動詞: 補語必要 ⇒ (II) S + V + C

完全他動詞: 補語不要 ⇒ (III) S + V + O, (IV) S + V + IO + DO
不完全他動詞: 補語必要 ⇒ (V) S + V + O + C

自動詞 (intransitive verb, vi)

誤: Plot cover and litter depth were differed between sites

なぜ受身。さらに、sitesって何。depthはthicknessが正しいはず。

誤: P. australis were appeared only in open habitats

主語は単数だし、appearは自動詞だし

They laughed at me for that. → I was laughed at for that.
A car ran over a dog. → A dog was run over by a car.

不完全自動詞

be, seem, stay, keep, smell, feel, sound, read, remain, number, measure, weigh, look, coincide

become, grow, go, turn, get, fell, prove

進行形を作れない動詞
a) 知覚: see, hear, smell, feel, taste
b) 心理: like, love, hate, wish, hope, forget
c) 状態: consist, belong, depend, resemble
d) be, have, seem, appear, remain, process
例外 He is being cheerful today. いつもと違って...(一時的状態)。I am always forgetting dates. 動作反復

他動詞 transitive verb (vt)

Woody plants can invade bare areas. × Woody plants can invade to bare areas.

自動詞と他動詞

vi ↔ vt
sit (座る) ↔ seat (座らせる), set (据える)
fall (倒れる) ↔ fell (倒す)
rise (上がる/起きる) ↔ raise (上げる), rouse (起こす)
lie (横たわる) ↔ lay (横たえる)

vi. He aims at the target with a gun. (aim at: 着眼する、目的とする)
vt. A burglar aimed his pistol at the master. (武器を-に向ける)

each pit appearing on the crystal surface

vi. 食事する(together)
vt. 1) (仕事・計画など)を台無しにする, 目茶目茶にする(up). 2) (部屋など)を散らかす (up).

動詞の書き換え

a) I doubt his success. ⇒ I am doubtful of his success.
b) Success depends upon a single moment. ⇒ Success is dependent upon a single moment.
c) The case distressed me. ⇒ The case was distressing to me.

a) He talked with her. ⇒ He had a talk with her.
b) He kicked at the dog. ⇒ He gave a kick at the dog.

a) He speaks English well. ⇒ He is a good speaker of English (or good English speaker).

群動詞

• be (am, is, are; was, were; been)
• have (has; had)
• do (do, does; did)
• will (would), shall (should), can (could), may (might), must, need, dare (dared), ought to, used to

would

I would sooner stay at home than go out in the rain.
had better: ~する方がよい [現在] You had better go now before it is too late. (≈ would rather)

pv. A dinner party will be given by us on Monday.

[主語 = 一般的人物 - 受動態で省略]

pv. I had my watch stolen (by somebody). [have ≈ suffer]

自動詞で受身の意味を持つもの

種々の構文の受動態

平叙文

The telephone was invented by Bell in 1876.

a) His son was given a book by him.
b) A book was given (to) his son by him.
受身のみ使用の決まり文句(能動態は使えるが不自然): 主に感情表わす

I am delighted to meet you. I am pleased to meet you. I'd be fascinated. I am interested in this book.
慣用的: made of (or from)*, known to, surprised at, covered with, interested in
* make: be made from = 原料が形を変えた製品, be made of: 材料がそのままの形
-からなる These bridges are made of steel.

He was elected captaion of our team (by us).

疑問文

Was the child knocked down by a car?

Can such a thing be understood by a child?

By whom was the portrait painted? (or Whom was the portrait painted by? 口語)

What was said to you by him? (稀)

What is this flower called in English (by you)?

Where was this shell found (by you)?

命令文 (imperative sentence, 稀)

Do it now. ↔ Let it be done now. (谷口 1977)

It is said that she is over ninety. (形式主語)
She is said to be over ninety.

The dog was run over by a car. I was spoken to by a stranger.

by以外の前置詞

Cf. I was surprised by a loud knock at the door.

The mountains are covered with snow.
We were caught in a shower on our way home.
He was educated at Oxford University.
Most Japanese houses were built of wood.

基本時制
現在形 present tense_____過去形 past tense__未来形 future tense
完了時制 perfect tense
現在完了 present per._____過去完了_________ 未来完了
現在完了進行形_________過去完了進行形____ 未来完了進行形
進行形 progressive
現在進行形 present pro.___過去進行形 past pro. 未来進行形

進行形 progressive

状態: be, seem, look, appear, differ, contain, etc.
知覚: see, hear, feel, smell, taste, etc.
心理: like, love, hate, fear, believe, forget, remember, etc.

時制の一致 sequence of tenses

主節のVが過去なら、従属節のVは過去か過去完了 (例外あり)

will → would, shall → should, can → could, may → might

must (had to), would, should, could, might, ought to, need, had better

完了形 perfect

⇔ He bought a foreign-made car.

不定詞 (infinitive)

動詞としての語形変化がある
Everyone likes to be respected.
He seems to be preparing tomorrow's lessons.
She seems to have been ill.

to不定詞

原形不定詞

知覚動詞: I saw him come in.
使役動詞: He made me come against my will.

Would you help me (to) find my glasses?

分詞 (participle)

動名詞 (gerund)

誤: To detected seed dry mass, ...
edはどう見ても…。こういうの、受身にするのか、edはずすのか迷う時があるから嫌だ。

(林 1977)

1) 名詞的用法

疑問詞 + to不定詞 「-べき」

× why to

2) 副詞的用法

I gave him a piece of friendly advice only to displease him. … 結局は怒らせてしまった。

He went to Chile never to return. 彼はチリに行ったきり戻らなかった。

To our grief the ship never returned. 悲しいが、その船は帰らなかった。
He found to his cost that it is dangerous to drive too fast. 彼があまりにも速く運転するのは危険であることを身にしみて知った。

3) 形容詞的用法

注意: so ~ as to - → 結果
He went early so as to get a good seat. 彼は良い席を取るために早く行った。[目的]
He went so early as to get a good seat. 彼はとても早く出たので良い席をとれた。[結果]

He is too tired to work any longer. = He is so tired that he can not work any longer.
The situation is too complicated for me to understand.

He is now strong enough to leave his bed. ≈ He is now so strong that he can leave his bed.

enough toの方が限定的で「~するに(足りる)だけ」というニュアンスの違いがある

He had enough money to pay for the drinks.

He was so curious as to open the box.
→ 多くの場合enough ~ to-と交換できる
注: so as to-とは違う

be to -

1. 予定(-はずだ): Father is to arrive at London tomorrow morning.
2. 義務(-べきだ): You are not to write a letter in red ink.
3. 可能(-できる): Not a sound was to be heard in the house.
4. 運命(-することになる): The poet was never to see his country again.
5. 意図(-するつもりだ): If we are to get along well, we must understand each other better.

To begin with, I should like to ask you a few questions.
Strange to say, no one has ever seen the master of this house.

名詞を修飾

時制

He seems to be ill. = It seems that he is ill.

He seems to have been ill. = It seems that he was (has been) ill.

現在分詞(進行形) → 名詞 A rolling_→stone gathers no moss.
過去分詞(受動態・完了形) → 名詞 A watched_→pot never boils.

分詞 + 名詞

名詞 + 分詞(句)

A man continually complaining is never listened to.
A word spoken is an arrow let fly.

使えると便利だ

分詞構文 participial construction

Not knowing what to say, he remained silent. ↔ As he did not know what to say, he remained silent.
Some books, not (being) read carefully, will do more harm than good. ↔ Some books, if they are not read carefully, will do more harm than good.
Having finished it, you may go. ↔ When you have finished it, you may go.

Night coming on, we went home. ↔ As night came on, we went home.
The moon having risen, I opened the window. ↔ When the moon had risen, I opened the window.

独立分詞構文

My mohter being ill, I looked after her.

慣用的成句

Dying is as natural as living.

現在分詞: 次に来る名詞の動作や状態
動名詞: 次に来る名詞の用途・目的

単純形 He is proud of being a graduate of Oxford.
完了形 He is proud of having graduated from Oxford.

目的語(O)

On hearing the news (= as soon as he heard the news), he turned people.
Cf. I am aware of his having left the room. 彼は私が部屋を出たのを知っている

I found it pleasant walking along the beach. 浜辺を散歩することは気持ちがよい

特殊形

慣用句

I can't help pitying such a man. We cannot but admire his bravery.

動名詞だけを目的語にとる動詞

動名詞と不定詞の両方を目的語にとる動詞

I remember reading it in some book before. -覚えがある
Please remember to wake up at six tomorrow morning. - 思い出す(忘れずに-する)

不定詞だけを目的語にとる動詞

We found it difficult to keep pace with our guide. × We found to keep pace with our guide difficult.
Don't take it into your head to kill two birds with one stone.

O = that節(that clause)

I think it proper that you should refuse his offer.

I will see (to it) that everything is ready.

Some people take it for granted that what is old is better than what is new.

We are all anxious that your should return. → We are all anxious for your return.

O = 関係詞節

O = 疑問詞節

O = whether (if)節

I _s don't know _v whether (if) you have grasped my idea _o.
_(s) Ask _v him o whether (if) he is coming on Sunday _o.

He is doubtful (about) whether he can afford a car.

主格補語 (C)

Ex. Most of them remained silent all the time. To read well is to become one with your author. This matter is of considerable importance.

Ex. The most important thing is that you learn to observe accurately. The question is whether he is willing to work or not. What puzzled me most was how I should please the children. That is just what I want.

目的補語(O.C.)

Please make yourself at home.
We found grandfather in good health.
He has made me what I am. 私が今日あるのは彼のおかげです。
What has made Japan what it is? 何が現在の日本を作ったのか。(what it is = 今日の日本)

1) 等位接続詞

Ex. You and I love memories. ≈ I and you love memories. ニュアンスの違い

動詞は近い方の主語に一致 Mr. Barker or Mr. Hillary is suitable for the position.
Which do you like better, apples or oranges? Will you be there or not? "Shall we go by bus or train?" "By bus." (比較 "Shall we go by bus or train?" - "No, let's take a taxi."
two or three miles, an inch or more
Rain or shine, I walk to school every day. 晴雨に関わらず、私は毎日歩いて学校に行く。

any Tom, (or) Dick, or Harry (トムでも, ディックでも, あるいはハリーでも) = だれでも = 猫も杓子も
Music or painting or reading will give you some peace of mind.

She doesn't smoke or drink. I have no brothers or sisters.

a mile or so ほぼ1マイル. there or thereabout(s) どこかその辺. for some reason or other 何らかの理由で. A day or two are needed. 一両日を要する. He is ill or something. 彼は病気か何かだ.

Study hard, or (else) you'll fail. 一生懸命勉強しなさい、さもないと落第しますよ。
Don't be too long, or you'll miss the train. あまりぐずぐずしないように、でないと電車に遅れる。
They must have liked the hotel, or they wouldn't have stayed so long. 彼らは、そのホテルが気に入っていたのでなければ、あんなに長くは滞在しなかっただろう。

the culinary art, or the art of cookery 割烹術、即ち料理法.

He is rich, or (at least) he appears to be (rich). 彼は金持ちか、いや、(少なくとも)そう見える。
I've met him somewhere. Or have I? どこかで彼に会ったことがある、いや、そう(だった)かな。

2) 従位接続詞(従属接続詞)

時: when, while, as, until(till), before, after, since
原因・理由: because, since, as
条件: if, unless
譲歩: although (though), as
状態: as, as if (though)

He has money as well as power. = He has not only power but (also) money.

so + adj/adv + that -: 非常に~なので-である ↔ not so + adj/adv + that - not …: … しないほど-ではない

We were so tired that we fell asleep soon. We were not so tired that we could not walk on.

such + (article) + adj + noun + that -: 非常に~なので-である

This is such a difficult book that very few can understand it.
= This is so difficult a book that very few can understand it.

such + be + noun + that -: -は非常なものなので~である

Such was storm that we could not go out.

… (,) so that ~ may/can/will/shall: ~できるように

Let's finish this work today so that we can have a holiday tomorrow.

…, so that + 直接法動詞 ~: …, それで~である

He has got well, so that he can now work.

主節 + lest + S + (should) + V = 主節 + so that + S + might not + V

They took refuge lest the flood should burst on them. = They took refuge so that the flood might (or should, would) not burst on them.
that/so that/in order that + S + may/can/will/shall ~: -するために、-できるように(口語はthat省略もある)

目的・意図を表す副詞節
Most people eat so that they may live, but a few seem to live that they may eat.
He gave up drinking in order that he might save money.

for fear (that) - (should), lest - (should): -しないように、-するといけないから → 否定的意味もつ接続詞。続く節はshould多 (should省略 → 原形動詞使う)

I fear lest I should fail.

in case - (should): 1) -するといけないから, 2) もし-した場合には

I hid the letter for fear (that) he (should) see it. = I hid the letter so that he should not see it.
Take your raincoat in case it (should) rain.

as soon as + S + V + 節 = no sooner + 助動詞 + S + V + than + 節 = scarcely (hardly, or barely) + 助動詞 + S + V + 節 (受験的訳: –するやいなや)

As soon as he had seen (saw) a policeman, he ran away. = No sooner had he seen a policeman than he ran away.
As soon as he (had) stepped onto the platform, he was arrested. = Scarcely had he stepped onto the platform, he was arrested.

Unless you work harder, you will never pass the examination. = If you do not work harder, you will never pass the examination.

= 従節 [疑問詞 -ever + 語 + S + V] + 主節
Even if you (may) choose either (or any of them), it must be one once for all. = Whichever you (may) choose, it must be done once for all.
Although he makes any excuses, I don't believe him. = Whatever excuses he may make (makes), I don't believe him.
Though you are rich, you must work. = However rich you may be, you must work.

whatever = no matter what
however = no matter how
whoever = no matter who, etc.

While some people like summer, others prefer winter.
Whereas water is liquid, ice is solid.

She would have fallen but (that) I caught her. = She would have fallen if I hadn't caught her.

Do in Rome as the Romans do.
The students read the poem like their teacher.
Use your knife and fork the way I do.
Spend your money how you please. Do it how you like.

主節 vs 従節

Although he was tired, he did not give up his plan. = Tired as (or though) he was, he did not give up his plan.

接続詞代用語

Once the job is finished, we’ll have nothing to worry about. = When once (If once, As soon as) the job is finished, we’ll have nothing to worry about.

The hotter it is, the harder you will find it to live here. = (According) As it is hotter, you will find it harder to live here.

The (very) moment I left home, it began to rain. = As soon as I left home, it began to rain.

Had you not arrived in time, I might have been drowned. = If you had not arrived in time, I might have been drowned.

Be it ever so humble, home is home. = No matter how humble it may be, home is home.

Let a man be ever so rich, he should not live an idle life. = No matter how rich a man may be, he should not live an idle life.

= 関係代名詞 + 関係副詞 + 関係形容詞

× post-mined site in our study where has been abandoned over 30 years shows ... (似たようなのが、他にもたくさん)

公式: 前置詞 + 関係代名詞 = 関係副詞

関係代名詞 relative pronoun

The report came in that a riot broke out in Detroit.
We are all equal in this, that [thisと同格] we all have the twenty-four hours in the day.

I did not answer to the question whether I love her or not.

限定用法

継続用法(非限定用法)

who, what, which (関係代名詞)

adj. = anxious, aware, careful, certain, confident, conscious, ignorant, sure, etc.
I was aware that he was poor.
= I was aware of his poverty.
= I was aware of his being poor.

adj. = annoyed, disappointed, glad, pleased, sorry, surprised, etc.
We are all anxious that you should return.
= We are all anxious for your return.

as, but (疑似関係代名詞)

Habits are easily formed – especially such as are bad.
I will send you such books as will interest you.

He would after today never be the same man as he was before.

He comes from the north, as we know from his accent.

As is often the case with him, he has been late this morning.

関係形容詞 relative adjective

関係副詞 relative adverb

限定用法: where, when, why, how
継続用法: where, when

複合関係代名詞・複合関係副詞

Whatever he says, the rumor is true. (= No matter what he says, …) 彼がどう言おうと噂は本当だ [副詞節]
Whatever he says is true. (= Anything that he says …) 彼の言うことはなんでも本当だ。[名詞節]

Come what may, we must stick to our post. 何が来ようと我々は自分の持ち場を離れてはならない

Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home. どんなに貧しくても家に勝る場所はない

Let a man be ever so rich, he ought not to be proud. (人は)どんなに金持ちでも得意になってはいけない

In totally, ... / In concluding, ... というのはありえない。

On S. virgaurea showed low cover in post-mined site, ...
関係代名詞の部分に書くべきか。ともあれ、主語がない。Onをとるのか、あるいは、showedの前にthatが入るのか、分からない。関係代名詞は省略しないのが論文のお約束だし。

形容詞句

主格補語: This dictionary is of great use.
目的格補語: I found it of no help.

副詞句

よくある公式: 前置詞 + 名詞 = 副詞

In general = Generally / In particular = Particularly / In short = Shortly

群前置詞

by means of
for the sake of -のために

They are ready to fight for the sake of their country.

for the purpose of/with a view to/with a (the) view of + -ing or noun: -するために、-するように

He went to France for the purpose of studying chemistry.

in spite of
in case of
in front of

because of
due (owing) to, according to

dissolved pots = 分解されたポット(既に分解してる) → degradable pots = 分解性ポット(これから分解する)

Ex: great difference, extra-ordinal sex ratio

限定用法 attributive use

1. 冠詞や人称代名詞・名詞の所有格 - 2. 数量 - 3. 主観的な判断 -
4. 大小 - 5. 新旧(齢) - 6. 色 - 7. 材料や出所

述語用法 predicative use

性質形容詞

数量形容詞

基数詞 one, two, three, …
序数詞 first, second, thrid, …

数量関係

few: 少ない (殆どない) ↔ little: 少ない (殆どない)
a few: 少しはある ↔ a little: 少しはある
not a few = many ↔ not a little = much

a few ⇔ none, several ⇔ one, many ⇔ few
much of 大いに > anything of 少しは > little of あまり~ない > something of 幾らか(幾分)~ > nothing of 少しも~ない

Cf. a lot of, a large number of, a great deal of, plenty of

There was not the least danger before us.
This book is not in the least interesting to me.

~ and the cells were extracted five times.
The compound was added four times, in 3-hour intervals, to ~
The final fraction represented about a 130-fold purification with ca 30% recovery.
The filtrate was diluted 3-fold with water ~
The 1 ml of the supernatant, 3 volumes of ethanol was added.
ATN: This compound inhibited the growth of ~ in 1:25000 dilutions.

代名形容詞

Each student (Each of the students) has a book. 生徒はめいめいが1冊ずつ本を持っている
Every student (Every one of the students) has a book. どの生徒も一人残らず1冊ずつ本を持っている

In the each large plot, I set up 25 small plots (0.8 × 0.8m) with spacing 1m between the each small plots.
なんで、前は正しいのに、後ろは間違えるんだか、理由が知りたい。ついでながら、1mは1_m

多くのものについて個々に見てこれを総括する → all や個別的な each より意味強い
I looked in every room. どの部屋もことごとくのぞき込んだ [!] every … → 単数構文 ↔ all … 複数構文 Ex. I looked in all the rooms.
Every word of it is false. その一語一語ことごとく偽りだ.
I've lost every other umbrella but this one この傘以外すべての傘をなくしてしまった
→ しばしば副詞句として用いる

every day [week, year] 毎日 [週, 年].
every day [week, year] or two 1, 2日 [週, 年]ごとに.
every mornin [afternoon, night] 毎朝 [午後, 晩].
at every step 一歩ごとに.

→ [後に"序数＋単数名詞"または"基数(または few など) + 複数名詞"] … おきに, … ごとに

every second week 1週間おきに.
every fifth day = every five days 5日ごとに, 4日おきに
every few days ［years］ 数日 [数年]ごとに
Every third person has a car. 3人にひとりは車を持っている
In the United States there is a census every ten years. 米国では10年ごとに人口調査がある
He picked up every last bean on the floor. 彼は床にあった豆を一つ残さず拾った
every now and then [again] = every once in a while [way] 時々, 時折
in every other line 1行おきに every other day 隔日(に), 1日おきに

[not を伴って部分否定] → ことごとく … とは限らない

Not every man can be an artist. だれでも芸術家になれるものとは限らない.

[抽象名詞を伴って] 可能な限りの, あらゆる, 十分な

He showed me every kindness. 彼は私にほんとにいろいろ親切にしてくれた.
I have every confidence in him. 私は彼に全幅の信頼を寄せている.
I have every reason to believe (that) he's innocent. 彼が無実であると信じる理由が私には十分ある.

None of my friends come (comes) to see me. 不可算名詞なら単数: None of this money is yours.

単純副詞

時・場所: 小さい単位から順に / 時と場所では場所が先

very vs much

He speaks English very_→well.

① I do not like_→ this research _←much.
② This is much_→better than that.

The news was very_→surprising.
I am very_→tired after a long monitoring.

This picture is much_→admired.

already vs yet

She had already left when I got there.
Have you done your measurement yet?

He is stil in bed.___Is he still single?
He has not yet got up.

ago vs before

I saw him a week ago.
I had seen him a week before.

I never visited the site before. (× ago)

疑問副詞 interrogative adverb

× How do you think of this picture?
〇 What do you think of this picture?

関係副詞 relative adverb

1. 原級 (positive)

So far as I know, he has nothing to do with the matter.
He went so far as to say that it was a scandal.

As long as we live, we have something to do. So long as you apologize I am satisfied.

No book is so interesting as this. = This is the most interesting book. = No book is more interesting than this.
There is nothing so interesting as history.

2. 比較級 (comparative)

A whale is no more a fish than a horse is. = A whale is not a fish any more than a horse is.

He is not more industrious than you (are). = He is less industrious than you (are). 彼は君ほど勤勉でない。
↔ He is no more industrious than you. = He is not industrious any more than you. 彼は君と同じく勤勉でない。

This dictionary contains no more than 20000 words. この辞書には2万語しかない。

This dictionary contains not more than 20000 words. この辞書には(多くても)2万語以上はない。

This dictionary contains no less than 20000 words. この辞書には20000語もある。

This dictionary contains not less than 20000 words. この辞書には少なくとも20000語ある。

Every one has a right to enjoy his liberty, still more his life. 人は皆、自由を享ける権利があり、まして、自分の生命はなおさらである。
It is not wise to live on today's income and much less on that of tomorrow. 今日の収入で生活することは件名ではなく、まして明日の収入を当てにするのはなおさらである。
still more ≈ to say nothing of, not to speak of

He knows Latin and Greek, much more modern languages.
He knows Latin and Greek, to say nothing of modern languages.

Nothing is more precious than time, yet nothing is less valued (普通省略 than time). 時間ほど貴重なものはないが、それほど重んじられないものもない。

= Nothing is so precious as time, … = Time is the most precious thing of all, …

There is no human possession more valuable than friendship.

No book is more amusing than this.
= No book is so amusing as this. = This is the most amusing book of all.

Nowhere (副詞) on earth can there be found a greater spectacle than this.

= Nowhere on earth can there be found so great a spectacle as this.
= This is the greatest spectacle that can (ever) be found on earth.

The higher the ape goes, the more he shows tail. 猿は高く登れば登るだけ、ますます尻尾を見せる。
according as ~: ~するにつれて、~に応じて

According as (In proportion as) the demand increases, prices go up.

~のために(~であるから)、いっそう(かえって)…
We enjoyed our meal all the more because we were all hungry.

He has some faults, but I love him because none the less.
I don't love him the less because he has some faults. 彼に幾らか欠陥があっても、好きなことに代わりはない。

He preferred walking to riding. [例外: to不定詞ではthanが普通 He preferred to walk rather than to ride.]

3. 最上級 (superlative)

A man lives with a few familiar ideas, two or three at most.

最上級の強調に用いられる熟語: under the sun, in the world, on the globe, etc.

名詞

名詞の形容詞化

形容詞的用法

detecting the processes of plants establishment after disturbance is important
succession sere
　これは、successional sereが正しいだろう

誤解を呼ぶ書き方

数字

基数

序数

基数: twenty-one, 序数: twenty-first, one-hundred-and-first

○ two 50 W lumps, × 2 50 W lumps, × two fifty watt lumps

about, more, lessなどの語を小数とともに用いてはいけない

no/not

He is not an ordinary scholar. 彼は普通の学者ではない ⇔ He is no ordinary scholar (= an extraordinary scholar). 彼は非凡な学者である

He did not learn anything from that book. ≈ He learned nothing from that book.

"How do you like this wine?" "Not so (half) bad." このワインどうだい。いけるよ。

"He is not in the same class with you in chess?" "Not now. He gets the better of me."

not better than: ~よりは良くない、せいぜい~だ

He is no better than a beggar.

no less than: ~ほども
not less than: 少なくとも(at least)
To my surprise, he gave me no less than $500. I suppose that he has no less than $500.

He was never much of a fellow for talking when young. My father was not much of a poet.

Mother once had a bat down the chimney and was scared no end. 母は煙突からコウモリが落ちてきて、ひどく震え上がったことがある

You have neither killed her nor cured her. あなたは彼女を殺しも生かしもしなかった
Lockheed? Kotchain? Neither one of them means anything to me; that's neither here nor there.

ロッキード? コーチャン? 私にはどちらも何のことか分かりません。無関係のことであります

We cannot value the sense of proportion too much.
I cannot thank you enough for your kind invitation.
It is impossible to overestimate the value of health.

部分否定

It is not entirely new. それは全く新しいというわけではない
Well, it wasn't exactly cold, but it wasn't warm either. そう、必ずしも寒くはないが、暖かくもない
not ~ always (necessarily, quite): 常に~とは限らない
not every: 全てが~ではない
not both: 両方とも~というわけではない

二重否定

You cannot read a good book without being the better for it. 良書を読めば必ず人はそれだけ向上する

There is no one but knows such a simple matter.

No ill befalls us but what may be for our good.

No wound is so slight that it may not become fatal.

弱否定語(準否定語)

John hardly ever works hard.
It rained for two days with scarcely any pause.

Rarely have I had a heavier heart than on that morning.
A sailor seldom returns to his ship without delight.

• 子供のオーストラリアで使ってた参考書: 実はすごく良い
• 木村 明. 1967. 英文法精解 -改訂板-, 培風館 745 p. 高校時に愛用してたもの。今でも使うが...
• 林 育男. 1977. ビートルズで英語を学ぼう. 講談社(Big Backs) 252 p.
• 平野 進 (編). 1983. 技術英文のすべて(第6版). 丸善, 東京
• 小林聰籌 (編). 2003. 英語ライティングハンドブック. TNU
• 松川昇太郎. 1968. マイティ 英文解釈. 学研447 p.
• 溝口歌子. 1976. ライフサイエンスの英語論文. 講談社サイエンティフィック 157 p.

• Murphy R & Smalzer WR. 2002. Basic grammar in use. 2nd edn. (CD付). Cambridge University Press
• 原田豊太郎. 2004. 間違いだらけの英語科学論文. 講談社Blue Backs
• ピーターセン・マーク. 1988. 日本人の英語. 岩波新書
• Swan, M. 2005. Practical English usage (3rd edn.). Oxford University Press, London
• 谷口次郎 (監). 1977. 大学入試 英語書き換え問題の公式(増補版). 篠崎書林, 東京 167 p.

辞書

• Hornby, A.S. (ed.). 1985. 現代英々辞典. 開拓社. 1036 p. 最新は2005年らしい. 英和辞典でニュアンスがとれないときに使う

ブラウザ仕様のためデザイン等は変更

博士課程地域生態系学講座入試問題(1996)

1. STOP JUNK MAIL

• Americans receive almost 2 million tons of junk mail every year.
• About 44% of the junk mail is never even opened or read.
• Nonetheless, the average American still spends 8 full months of his or her life just opening junk mail.
• Junk mail is made possible by U.S. Postal Service policies that enable bulk mailers to send presorted batches of mail for their minimum rate - 10 ￠ per piece.

• If only 100,000 people stopped their junk mail, we could save about 150,000 trees every year. If a million people did, we could save some 1.5 million trees.

• Write to: Mail Preference Service, Direct Marketing Association, 11 West 42nd St. PO Box 3861, New York, NY 10163-3861.
  They'll stop your name from being sold to most large mailing list companies. This will reduce your junk mail up to 75%.
• Recycle the junk mail you already get3 If it's printed on news print, toss it in with the newspapers. If it's quality paper, make a separate pile for it-many recycling centers accept both white and colored paper. Envelopes are recyclable, too - as long as they don't have plastic windows in them.

博士課程 地域生態系学講座入試問題(1997)

生物圏科学専攻 植物生態学コース・生物多様性科学コース

博士後期課程入試問題 (2007.2.28)

英語(English)

2005年 環境起学専攻試験問題

環境起学専攻・試験問題: 英語[英文和訳]

(引用: Schulze et al. 2005. Plant Ecology. Springer. 問題文は一部を改変し使用)

修士課程生態環境科学専攻入試問題(1998)

外国語(英語)

A

博士課程生態環境科学専攻地域生態系学講座入試問題 (1999)

外国語(英語)

A

Table 1. Characteristics of the mor layer at the site studied, Renberget.
PH^a_______________________________3.1 ± 0.0
C:N ratio__________________________ 36.6 ± 0.9
Total soil nitrogen (kg/ha)______________302 ± 33
Microbial nitrogen (kg/ha)^b______________27 ± 3
Extractable amino-acid nitrogen (kg/ha)^c__ 1.0 ± 0.1
Extractable inorganic nitrogen (kg/ha)^c____0.3 ± 0.0
^a: 0.04M CaCls, soil:solution ratio 1:10.
^b: Using 0.45 as an estimate of the fraction of nitrogen released by fumigation.
^c: In 2M KCl, soil:solution ratio 1:10.

C

英語(英作文)

(平成10年度北海道大学大学院地球環境科学研究科学生便覧より一部改変)

博士課程生態環境科学専攻地域生態系学講座入試問題(2000)

外国語(英語)

LEAVE IT A LAWN

A

C

地域生態系学講座 博士後期課程入試問題

英語 (2001 年は間違えてるかも)

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: AN EXPERIMENTALIST’S (MODERN) DESCRIPTION

A

地域生態系学講座 博士後期課程入試問題

英語 (2002.2.27)

Abstract

1. Abstract以降の英文全文を訳せ。
2. 下線部の用語(a)-(e)の意味を簡潔に英語で説明せよ。

和文英訳

(朝日新聞2003年7月29日「天声人語」一部改変)

【語注】
離宮 = detached palace, リュウゼツラン = maguey , 茎 = stem

a. 地球温暖化
b. オゾンホール
c. 環境汚染物質
d. 生物多様性

生態環境科学専攻修士課程入試問題

英語(英文解釈)

A

B

C