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Mount Usu / Sarobetsu post-mined peatland
From left: Crater basin in 1986 and 2006. Cottongrass / Daylily
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redundancy adjectives |
Expressions that should be rememberedPhraseowing to the fact that → becausesubsequent to → after on the order of → about in the near future → soon at the present time → now by means of → by of great importance → important in consequence of this fact → therefore very limited numbers of → few Unnecessary limited usage (不必要な限定)No need to write italicized wordsabsolutely perfect the actual number |
an actual investigation not actually true almost unique almost perfect → imperfect by means of → by or using a categorical denial completely surrounded conclusive proof cylindrical in shape deliberately chosen an essential condition facing up to they are in fact few in number a[n] positive identification small in size streamlined in appearance |
stunted in growth swampy in character quite impossible quite obvious hard evidence real problems realistic justification they really are really dangerous the smallest possible minimum valid information very necessary very relevant very true wholly new |
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Table. Short words that should be used more than long words, except that the long words are appropriate (溝口 1976). Since reviewers revise sometimes from short to long words, there should be some meaning. Desirable - undesirable do - accomplish meet - encounter change - modification extra - additional except - excepting partly - partially expect - anticipate show - exhibit preventive - preventative help - assistance |
build - fabricate about - regarding simple - simplistic first - firstly is (be) - represents use - application send - forward show - reveal discovery - breakthrough guidance - guidelines shortened - streamlined begin - commence suggest - hypothesize later - subsequently about - concerning reputation - image |
enough - sufficient guess - conjecture sign - indication end - terminate so - consequently person - individual use - utilize much - considerable people - individuals almost - virtually build - construct please - kindly about - approximately show - demonstrate methods - methodology occur - take place |
Leaf surfaceglabrous: smooth, not hairy (glabrate, glabrescent = losing hairs with age)pubescent: covered with erect hair (especially soft and short ones) hirsute: with rather rough or stiff hair tomentose: densely pubescent with matted, soft white woolly hair woolly, lanate: with long, soft and tortuous or matted hair setaceous, setose, strigose (adj. bristly, hispid): setulose (小剛毛), hispidulous, strigillose ciliate: marginally fringed with short hairs (cilia). |
Flowerdeclinate: having a downward curve or slope; bending away, as from the horizontal (花弁等が)下向きに湾曲したThe bill of the bird is declinate at the tip. その鳥の嘴は先の部分が下に曲がっている |
Introductionmuch less attention paid to &hellipMethodsThe summit area is partly covered by man-made meadows.14 plots were situated in three habitat types. |
Discussionto tell the truth (or to tell you the truht) [written language] → the truth is … [spoken language] (≈ honestly,)Cf. to be frank with you … ≈ frankly … in my opinion (or estimation) … ⇒ cp. accoriding to … (not by myself) |
Timeat/in/onat for a precise timein for months, years, centuries and long periods on for days and dates
at 3 o'clock / in May / on Sunday Ex. in those days - on that day Ex. at the age of sixty - in his old age ☛ adverb (tomorrow, today, yesterday, tonight, etc.) = not used preposition Ex. He went home yesterday. ☛ adverbial objective (this, last, next, every, etc. + noun)= not used preposition Ex. He will come next year. since/from/aftersince = back to a previous point in timeEx. I have lived in this city since the end of the war. from = the time or point in time when something startsEx. I knew him from his childhood. after = later than and next in time or placeEx. After that everything was different. Cp. I have been reading since 5 o'clock.___ I read from 5 to 6 o'clock. ___ I read after 5 o'clock. to/by/till (until)/beforeto = position or relation in timeEx. It is just three days to New Year's Day. by = arrangements and deadlines, not later thanEx. The postman is always here by 11 am. till (until) = up to (the time that)We played chess until (= up to ) midnight. before = earlier than the time or event mentionedEx. I met her just before she left. Cp. I'll do it until Monday. (continuous)___ I'll do it by Monday. (including Monday) ___ I'll do it before Monday. (not including Monday) in/within/after___base__________in a week__after a week____▽______________↓__________↓ ---------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - > _____← within a week →__________▲ for/during/throughfor = duration of time or extent of spaceEx. I stdied English for three hours yesterday. during = throughout the duration ofEx. I do not like get up early during the winter. through = a period of timeEx. I felt it was so cold through this winter. Spacein/at/toin used with less specific location ↔ at used with more nonspecific oneEx. He lives at 7/11, Chandos Street, in Durham. to used to indicate the directionEx. Now, listen to me. Be kind to others. in/into/withininto to indicate entry, introduction, insertion, superposition, or inclusionwithin to indicate enclosure or containment |
out of/from/through/offout of ↔ in/intofrom to indicate a starting point through to indicate passage from one end or boundary to another off to indicate physical separation or distance from a position of rest, attachment, or union
_______☼ over on (upon)/above/over/upEx. The moon is on the horizon.Ex. The moon is above the horizon. Ex. The cloud spread over the summit. under/below/down/beneathunder ↔ overbelow ↔ above beneath ↔ on down ↔ up between/among (amongst)between, referring to one-to-one relationshipsamong, referring to indistinct or nonspecific relationships Ex. He had to choose between a bicycle, a train set, a pair of sneakers, and a new backpack for his birthday present. Ex. round/around/aboutaround, surrounding or on all sides of something or someoneEx. The Romans built a defensive wall around the city. round, around + movement (British English)about, in many different directions within a particular place, or in different parts of a place Ex. We spent the whole afternoon walking about town. along/across/through__________across------------------------------------------------ [road] along ○→____↓____through ■→ ------------------------------------------------ along ○→____●
Ex. We walked along the road.
Ex. We live across the road.
Ex. We walked through the woods. to/toward(s)/forEx. We went to Tokyo. Ex. We went toward Hongo. Ex. We went for Tokyo. before/in front of/after/behind
Ex. The company put up a statue in front of their building. (location) Ex. Look behind you! Misc.(out) of/from= expressing materials
Ex. The desk is made of wood. by/with/through
Ex. It was made by him with a knife. by/at/for= express standard, ratio or price
Ex. Eggs are sold by the dozen. but or except/without/besides= exclusion or addition
Ex. I know nothing except (but) this. |