History

at the University of Leipzig = symbolic event for experimenal psychology

experimental psychology Ex. forgetting curve

Def. the process of an automatic, conditioned response that is paired with a specific stimulus
= respondent conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning

Freud vs Jung

Gestalt psychology (Gestalt-Theorie)

Behaviorism

Genevan school

Soviet Marxist psychology

Cognitivism

Unconditioned response (無条件反応)

Conditioned response (条件反射)

conditioned stimulus: a stimulus that eventually triggers a conditioned response

Ex. If you are bitten by a barking dog, you may experience feelings of fear and anxiety whenever you hear barking

food = unconditioned stimulus →

salivating for food = unconditioned response

ringing = conditioned stimulus →

salivation = conditioned response

Aspects of learning (学習の諸相)

Step: encoding → storage → retrieval

≠ the Ovsiankina effect (Ovsiankina 1928)

Behavior and learning (行動と学習)

Forgetting curve (忘却曲線)

Exp. the memorisation of nonsense syllables

b: savings (%) ⇒

R: retrievability: a measure of how easy it is to retrieve a piece of information from memory
S: stability of memory

t: time (usually minutes)
k = 1.84 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;c = 1.25 (constant)

Memory abnormality (記憶異常)

= amnesia + paramnesia
Causes: alcohol misuse (mostly), brain fever, brain damage, and others

Learning conditions (学習条件)

Learning principles (学習原理)

Environment (環境)

Theory of heredity (遺伝理論)

Parents: bad and good results on the maze → crossing: good-good or bad-bad
→ after the crossing was repeated, mice were divided into two types, i.e., good and bad types → genetical selection

Brain (cerebrum)
A: associative region
(連合野)
S: seat of thought
(思考中枢)

= the proportion of the brain not directly connected with either receptor inputs or motor outputs, where A is the association cortex and S is the sensory cortex
→ high ratio = complex brain

→ human shows very high ratio
We cannot apply Tryon's research to human. The following research supposed the theory of heredity.

England: Streaming

In early time, children were divided at the ability.
Eleven (years old) plus examination - abolished by the Labour Party

USA: Low of immigration - society of white race

White people looks down upon colored people and their race. Low of stopped race for stopped criminal's race. Children of black people can learn in early age.
"Head start plan": Sesame Street on TV (the effects are little)
Jansen supposed the theory of heredity.

Research on family race (家系研究)

Results: Well men are born from well family race, but these data are unbelievable, because the races are curned, and those are not able to separate heredity and environment.

At independence war
♀w the North (good race) - ♂ (Caricakk, northern soldier) - ♀b the South (feeblemindness , bad race)

_____Total_____Low____Normal__Occupation, etc.
___numbers_intelligence__
♀w___496____0.0%_______-_____Doctor, judge, soldier
♀b___480____29.6%____10% >__Criminal, alcoholism,
_____________________________illegitimate child

There are not always explained by heredity only.

Methods (assays) of twins (双子分析)

identical twins (一卵性双生児, the genes of them are the same) ⇔ fraternal twins (二卵性双生児, brother)
IQ differences differed between identical and fraternal twins, although their environment is similar.
Research identical twins in different environments.

___________________________A_B__C_D
Identical twins in same ENV_____83 94 94 86
Identical twins in different ENV___21 77 65 72
Fraternal twins in same ENV___172 54 92 75
Fraternal twins in different ENV_853 52 85 77

A: Number of pairs, B: Intelligence*, C: Reading/spelling*, D: mathematics*
* average of relative coefficient in twins.

→ not unbelievable
compared between identical twins grew in same and different environments (Anastasi A)

→ differences in IQ between the twins became large when the duration of separation was long (the maximum difference of IQ was 24)
In northern and southern parts, IQ of black people in Philadelphia in Pennsylvania, that is located in northern part, a part of immigrated black people increased their IQ (Lee 1951) and of those immigrants younger peoples increased their IQ more than older ones.

Hall S = Father of developmental education (発達教育学)
Gesell = human development – mature
Tarmen = IQ
Goddard = Caricakk Family race

                        Year   Mean IQ
Age                              6     8    10   12   14   16
Uncivilized      1930    95   89   84   81   75   74
Development  1940  103   99   91   90   80   80

Change of society → Changes of ability of children
Identical twins who deal with difficult procedures and get difficult characters (Miki Y et al).

Table. Twins searched at Junior high
school belonging with University of Tokyo
                                 Character difference
Breeding difference  Clearly  A litte  None
Existence                     14        14        4
None                              4        21       11
Total                             18        35       15  

Effect of breeding in family
Advance of culture

→ Ability of children increases (Test for ability over 100). Normal advantage is 100.
→ Accelerated phenomenon of development (Cultured society has this character.)

    School year  Age   10  11  12  13  14  15  16

        5              63  61  67  63  64  60   -
        6               -  74  73  76  72  66  72
        7               -   -  80  83  82  81  76

The same school years and not same age - Degree of ability is mostly same.
The same age and school year is high - Much education got who is higher.
Ability: obtained the effects by school education
Degree of development ability: not depended on age, but periods of education is determinant in Cambodia, number of school is low - The same age, but difference of educated volume

About leaning ability → Effect of school education

↓ two groups

After 10 years, half of A went into universities and men worked as a soldier, sailor, etc. Women became nurse, teacher, secretary and marriage. Half of B were in a home, 2 members got married but 1 is divorced. Some people got work, e.g., washer, and worker.

Humane environments should be rich - need communication to develop the ability
Action of children - Response from ENV - Action of children - (like a chain)
intelligent curiosity - development
obtaining knowledge: if responses are not, action of children is less.

home: environment changes are poor

Effect or influence of ENV - they are not direct touch, they get media of action.

Effects of learning in the early stages of development

(学習の発達初期における効果)

catching to classical learning is outer motive (外発的動機, 学習心理学用語) = drive reduction theory (動因低減説)
Learning: repair motion to constant direct - because the drive reduced.

1) pain, stimulation
2) starve, thirsty (physiological unbalance)
3) neutral stimulus with 1) and 2)

Push and then open the door

In accident, the door opened and went to the next room. This is one of the learning for avoidance to unwell tense. Lamp lighted before the electric shock was given. Thereafter, mouse went to the next room to avoid the shock. Lamp hits (case 3)
Motive reduction - well
Mouse is very hungry - give maze - meet to put on goal.
Two types of driving:

a) hungry - unwell tensed condition
b) feed - reinforcement(強化)

The principle is the same for human.
Learning of motive reduction theory

1) Human (animal) is inactive existence.
2) When they get unwell tensed condition, they only act. (Action for survival)
3) For leaning, they make motive factor (Education by drop and whip).

→ outer motive (They dislike to do it.)

Monkey: motive, reinforcement - not observed

Fig. Learning curves by Harlow's puzzle - ambition

When he opens the one window, he can see outer landscape. If the landscape is most curiosity, learning steps fast.
A monkey chooses one of them.

Prosperous to intelligent curiosity - Intelligent growth is large.
Conclusion (6-10 years old)
IQ: Rise: competitive, intelligent curiosity, Interesting large, Patience ↔ Fall: opposite to the above
Intelligence rises: curiosity, interesting → competence needed.

_______________________Normal Late Home
Choose difficult theme (%)___64.9__12.5_14.5
- zigzag puzzle: 3 ranks = simple (easy), middle, difficult

Left part:__The right side__Nothing
_________The wrong side Picture
Right part: The right side__Picture
_________The wrong side Nothing

→ normal child - choose left, weak-minded child - choose right

                                         IQ (4 age)  IQ (5 age)  IQ (6 age)
Mother  M's B's
             Sensitivity (配慮)    +0.49          +0.34
             Interfere (圧力)
             Involve (自我関与)                                       -0.29
Father   M'sB's
             Sensitivity               +0.51          +0.40
             Interfere                  -0.28           -0.33
             Involve

Mother-child interference and mother-child behavior: one year before elementary school entrance.

a: P < 0.001. b: P < 0.01. c: P < 0.05

5-6 ages → parent: positive effect on child growth
effect from mother - big: pressure has negative effects
effect from father - not big (children feel the model of society)

| +
(feature of parent behavior)
consideration / maintenance – Adaptive behavior in Kinder garden
Interference from parent_____Father interference: + or -
farther +↓- except father
↓ Child self-confidence: independence from parent
↓ +
High grade of intelligent work ↓ +
Adaptive behavior in elementary school

Experimental examples (Lepper) for 3-5 aged children in a kinder garden

A: reward with notice__B: reward__C: no reward
________8.59%_______16.73%____18.09%

Children draw pictures during free time.
A: notice - give reward if you draw well. B: reward without the notice. C: nothing
↓ for a while
Q. How many children draw spontaneously?
A.: They draw for reward. (In this case, pictures are methods to get reward)

When they don not receive reward, they do not draw any pictures. - Notice: minus effect
Reward = Picture - no

exogenous effect has two senses
1. control - behavior control (like A)
2. information - How to do?
Experiment (conducted by Deci)

Puzzle_________Time 1 (1st time)_Time 2 (2nd)_Time 3
Series 1____________248.2_________313.9____198.5
Series 2 (control)_____213.9_________205.7____241.8

Reward = $1
Time 1: no reward, series 1 and 2
Time 2: reward to Series 1_________Series 1 has a mind.
Time 3: no reward to both series.____Series 1 has no mind.

Materials - university students

1. discrimination learning (弁別学習) = no solution: indiscriminate punishment
2. anagram (アナグラム課題): direct word switch or word play, the result of rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to produce a new word or phrase, using all the original letters exactly once → making as many as they can - impossible

repeatedly failed in the easy tasks → can not solve the tasks they have ever done (cf. also can been seen the avoidance learning of dogs)

Materials: school children - They design by brick.
Succeeded group__failed group (They cannot make that.)
↓_______________↓
Failed group______succeeded group
do their best______two patterns of behavior

1. problem is difficult.
2. They have a mind.

Others loose a mind to be short of effort (for their ability)

Source of failure (原因帰属)

Curiosity (好奇心)

1. Diffused curiosity: curiosity without some information
2. Specific curiosity: curiosity for answer

education method with curiosity should use specific curiosity

Developing process of intelligent ability

function___→__function
↑↓___________↑↓
structure__→__structure
Time 1__change__Time 2

moving the fence, but the baby does not find out the ball by trick
before 8 months: he/she thinks ball disappears → after 8 months: he/she thinks it is strange.

|☺| |☺| |☺|
3-4 months: he/she does not have any questions when it sees three mirrors.
7-8 months: it is astonished, due to three mothers of it.

Perception developed also by early learning (vision)

upside-down and leftside-right goggles, worn by himself
- hidden an eye and worn a glass, due to twin image
he claimed he saw the world rightside up after some time

no obstacles for life = used to wear the glass by the 8th day
after discontinue the use, he felt uncomfortable

Ames room

Ames trapezoid

an image on, e.g., a flat piece of cardboard that seems to be a rectangular window but is, in fact, a trapezoid
binocular vision, including cyclophoria (回旋斜位) and aniseikonia (不等像視)