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History (歴史)






Mount Usu / Sarobetsu post-mined peatland
From left: Crater basin in 1986 and 2006. Cottongrass / Daylily

natural sciences, geological timescale, anthropology

Periodization (時代区分)

Prehistoric Age (prehistory, 先史時代)

Stone, Bronze and Iron Age (Thomsen, Christian Jürgensen 1788-1865)

Stone Age (石器時代)

Palaeolithic Period (旧石器時代)
Homo, used extinct animals and chipped stone tools (打製石器)
Early: Homo habilis and H. erectus, used hand ax
Middle: H. neanderthalensis, used flake tools (剥片石器)
Late: H. sapiens (Cro-Magnon man), developed diverse stone tools
Mesolithic Period(中石器時代)
using bow-and-arrow and cutware
Neolithic Period (新石器時代)
Homo, used present animals and polished stone tools

Bronze Age (青銅器時代), BC3000 or BC2000-

Trojan War (トロイア戦争), described in Greek myths

≈BC1250, BC1700-BC1200, or fictional story
1868 Schliemann, Heinrich: discovered Troy

Hyksos (allied forces of Mesopotamian countries)

BC1680 occupied Nile River delta - Egypt recaptured

Mitanni (Habigalbat)
≈BC1550-≈BC1260 Syria in the present

invented strong army tank + high horsemanship technique

Iron Age (鉄器時代)

BC8C-BC5C (earl Iron Age): Biskupin (northwestern Poland) - palafitte

increase in water level

Ancient Orient or Ancient Near East

BC4000-BC2400

Mesopotamia +
ancient Egypt +
ancient Persia +
Anatolia and the Armenian highlands +
Levant +
Arabian Peninsula

BC8000 Jericho, -258 m elevation: oldest fortified city in the world
1868 Warren, Charles: excavated the site
1907-1909, 1911 Sellin, Ernst & Watzinger, Carl

excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq

1930-1936 Garstang, John: excavated
1952-1958 Kenyon, Kathleen
1997-2000 Nigro, Lorenzo & Marchetti, Nicolò: excavated
1997-2017 Italian-Palestinian Expedition

Tower A1: middle Bronze Age
Palace G: early Bronze III

agriculture

Ancient Mesopotamia

BC4000: uruk (ウルク古拙文字)

≈ proto-sumerian or proto-cuneiform (楔形文字)
Enuma Elish: Babylonian mythology - the myth of the creation of primordial water ☛ view of life

Babylonia: Babylon (town, often used capital)

Babylonian hanging garden

Sumer
BC3800-BC500 Ur (ウル)

BC6500-BC3800 Ubaid dynasty (BC6500-BC3500 Ubaid culture)
≈BC3800 Ur: ancient city

1926-1931 excavation survey
discovered music instruments (lyre) (1929)
Royal Game of Ur = two-player dice game (≈BC2600-BC2400)

索引
Assyria: northern Mesopotamia

iron
BC21C-BC14C city-state - territorial state
BC14C-BC7C empire

≈BC3500-BC2000 Ebla: upstream of the Euphrates River

dominated by Cedrus libani - overharvesting - desertification

≈BC1680 Hittites (Hetthaei, Latin) in Asia Minor

iron and horse
Old Kingdom (BC1680-) - Middle Kingdom (≈BC1500-) - New Kingdom (≈ BC1430-)
≈BC1160: sudden disappearance - by Sea Peoples?

BC1450-BC1200 Ugarit: port city in northern Syria

Ugaritic alphabet (phonogram)
ancient Semitic religion - origin of Old Testament

BC/AD established Nabataean Kingdom by Nabataeans

location - the present western Jordan and its surrounding area

wealth provided by the production of asphalt

AD106: extinct

BC900-BC27 Etruscan civilization: central Italy
BC1550-BC1100 Akrotiri in Santorini or Thira Island

BC1628 Minoan eruption = underwater eruption → formed the island
similar with Minoan civilization

≈40 established Volubilis: Berber-Roman city in Morocco

BC202-BC25 Numidia: roman puppet government

New World

BC1300-BC300 Pueblo, southwestern North America

Anasazi (Ancestral Puebloans): ancestor of American natives
characterized by specific agricultural system, adobe and stonemasonry

Mesoamerica Cultures (メソアメリカ文化)
Kotosh and Piruru: Andean archaeological complex
BC3000-BC1800 Mito period

The Temple of the Crossed Hands

BC1750-BC1150 Wairajirca perid: discovered first pottery
Characterized by long-distance transaction
BC1250-BC/AD Olmec: Gulf of Mexico
BC10C-16C Zapotec
BC/AD-7C Teotihuacan: central Mexico
BC3C-16C Maya: southeastern Mexico - Yucatan Peninsula - Guatemala

slash-and-burn agriculture on laterite

7C -12C Toltec
15C-1521 Aztec (アステカ)
and others
Inca Empire (インカ帝国), early 12th C-1532
Origin: Tiahuanaco - demolition owing to the upheaval of mountains

☛ the improvement of agricultural systems

≈ 1200 Manqu Qhapaq (Manco Cápac): first king
BC500-AD500 Nazca Lines (Cf. Palpa Lines)
a group of geoglyphs drawn om Nazca Desert in southern Peru
1926 lines discovered by Kroeber AL, and Xesspe TM
1939 animals discovered by Kosok P

Insufficient evidence for all
Kosok & Reiche: astronomy and cosmology (astronomical calendar)
Zuidema RT: social enterprise

Remote ages (古代)


Ancient Alexandria
BC331 Alexander the Great: established the city

Egypt

River Nile: crop productivity ∝ water level
The classification of ages follows the European opinion
Neolithic period
Prehistoric Egypt: Prior to BC3100
Naqada III
0th Dynasty = the protodynastic period; BC c. 3100–BC3000

Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (BC, エジプト王朝)

Early (Dynastic)
1st Dynasty (I): c.3150–2890   2nd Dynasty (II): 2890–2686
Old Kingdom
3rd Dynasty (III): 2686–2613   4th Dynasty (IV): 2613–2498   5th Dynasty (V): 2498–2345   6th Dynasty (VI): 2345–2181
First Intermediate
7th Dynasty (VII): spurious   8th Dynasty (VIII): 2181–2160   9th Dynasty (IX): 2160–2130   10th Dynasty (X): 2130–2040   Early 11th Dynasty (XI): 2134–2061
Middle Kingdom
Late 11th Dynasty (XI): 2061–1991   12th Dynasty (XII): 1991–1803   13th Dynasty (XIII): 1803–1649   14th Dynasty (XIV): 1705–1690
Second Intermediate
15th Dynasty (XV): 1674–1535   16th Dynasty (XVI): 1660–1600   Abydos Dynasty: 1650–1600   17th Dynasty (XVII): 1580–1549
New Kingdom
18th Dynasty (XVIII): 1549–1292

Thutmose III (the Napoleon of Egypt)   Amenhotep III

19th Dynasty (XIX): 1292–1189

Ramesses II
1274: Battle of Kadesh

20th Dynasty (XX): 1189–1077
Third Intermediate
21st Dynasty (XXI): 1069–945   22nd Dynasty (XXII): 945–720  
Kush (or Kushite)
≈BC920-≈AD350: southern Egypt and northern Sudan in the present

first black kingdom
using Meroitic script - undeciphered

23rd Dynasty (XXIII): 837–728   24th Dynasty (XXIV): 732–720   25th Dynasty (XXV)732–653
Late Period
26th Dynasty (XXVI): 672–525   27th Dynasty (1st Persian Period, XXVII): 525–404  

BC525 Battle of Pelusium: Egypt vs Persia

Egyptians: cats as being sacred → utilzied by Persian

28th Dynasty (XXVIII): 404–398   29th Dynasty (XXIX): 398–380   30th Dynasty (XXX): 380–343   31st Dynasty (2nd Persian Period, XXXI): 343–332
Ptolemaic (Hellenistic)
Argead Dynasty: 332–305
Ptolemaic Kingdom: 323–30

Ancient Greece

Prehistoric age - BC86
BC 8C: polis (BC7C-BC4C - rise)

consortium nation
klēros

Alexander III of Macedon (BC356-BC323) = Alexander the Great

battle to Persia

Lydia
BC1200-BC546 Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor

Croesus (Reign ≈BC585–BC546)


Persia (Persian Empire)

Achaemenid or Achaemenian Dynasty (アケメネス朝)
BC550-BC330 First Persian Empire
Reign BC522–BC486 Darius I (the Great)

centralized system

Persepolis: ceremonial capital (burnt by Macedonian-Greece allied forces)

1931 excavation survey: ash accumulated with 50 cm in thickness

BC499-449: the Persian Wars BC478: siege of Byzantium
BC450: Battle of Salamis (サラミスの大海戦)

A naval battle fought between an alliance of Greek city-states under themistocles and the Persian Empire under King Xerxes
→ Greek amry won

BC460-BC445: First Peloponnesian War (第一次ペロポネソス戦争)
BC457: Battle of Tanagra
BC431-BC404: the Peloponnesian war (ペロポネソス戦争)

Delian League (lead by Athena) vs Peloponnesus League (led by Sparta, supported by Persia)

+ epidemic (plague) outbreak in Athens

Peloponnesian League victory → Greek - lost the political power

BC814-BC146 Carthago (Tunisia, present), established by Phoenicians

the Punic Wars (ポエニ戦争): Roma vs Carthago (Rome won all)
BC264-BC241 First: Sicily - main battlefield
BC218-BC201 Second: Carthaginian lead by Hannibal defeated the Roman → Scipio the Great defeated Hannibal at Zama
BC149-BC146 Third: a Roman expeditionary force led by Scipio the Younger besieged and destroyed Carthage - the war end

BC280 Battle of Heraclea
BC279 Battle of Asculum
BC222 Battle of Sellasia
BC146 the Roman Republic (Res Publica Romana or Imperium Romanum) occupied the Carthage and ancient Greece

The Roman Empire (Imperium Romanum, ローマ帝国)

complete waterworks - lead water pipes → lead pollution
BC27 established from the Roman Republic
212-216(construction) Baths of Caracalla (Thermae Caracallae)

260/270-273 Palmyra Empire (Imperium Palmyrenum, パルミラ帝国)

Crisis of the Third Century - established by Queen Zenobia

Collapse: 395 split the Eastern and Western Empire, or 476/480 collapse of Western Empire

476 Odoacer dethroned the emperor, Romulus Augustulus
480 assassined the previous emperor, Julius Nepos

395 established the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)

Capital: Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul)

1453 Collapse by Ottoman Turks (Sultan Mehmed II)

Middle ages (中世, 5-15C)


from the fall of the Western Empire to pre-Renaissance
The Dark Ages (暗黒時代) in Europe
(1) the Middle Ages until the Late or
(2) in the Early Middle Ages (the Dark Ages ≠ the middle ages)

Early Middle Ages (前期): 500-1000

800-1806 Holy Roman Empire (神聖ローマ帝国)

900 Charlemagne established
the complex of European territories under the rule of the Frankish or German king

824-1841 Kingdom of Navarre (Reino de Navarra, ナバラ王国)

at the bottom of Pyrenees mountains in the present northern Spain
1004-1035 Sancho III Garcés in office (990-1035)

expanding territory without war - the foundation of law-abiding nation

High Middle Ages (盛期): 1000-1300

Christian Crusade (Crusader) (十字軍)
Original purpose: liberation of the Holy Sepulcher of Christ in Jerusalem
1096-1099 First
1147-1149 Second
1189-1192 Third
1202-1204 Fourth
1218-1221 Fifth
The Renaissance (ルネサンス, Fr), (late 13th)14th-17th C
Nicola Pisano 1220/1225-c.1284
Dante Alighieri 1265-1321
Giotto di Bondone c.1267-1337
Sandro Botticelli c.1445-1510
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinc 1452-1519
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 1463-1494
Erasmus of Rotterdam (Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus) 1469-1536
Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni 1501–1504

Late Middle Ages (後期): 1300-1500

1303 Outrage of Anagni (アナーニ事件)
1309-1377 Avignon Papacy (アヴィニョン捕囚)
1339-1453 Hundred Years' War (百年戦争)

dynastie des Valois vs Plantagenet dynasty and Lancaster dynasty

Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc, Engl) 1412.1.6-1431.5.30

la Pucelle d'Orléans (The Maid of Orléans)

1455-1485(1487) Wars of the Roses (薔薇戦争)

England

The Age of Exploration (大航海時代)

from the middle of 15th cnetury to the middle of 17th century
Portugal
Henrique, Infante Dom (1394-1460): Prince Henry the Navigator
Spanish Empire (Imperio españo)
1492 established
las Casas, Bartolomé de (1484-1566)

1552 A short account of the destruction of the Indies - bestseller

1898 lost Spanish–American War (end of Empire)
Protestant Reformation (宗教改革)
16th century

Middle East

622 Islam (Caliphate, イスラム帝国) established on Arabian Peninsula

moving toward the north → 651 subvert the Sassanian
Koran

632-  661 Rashidun Caliphate
661-  750 Umayyad Caliphate
750–1258 Abbasid Caliphate

(Page 1990)

Norse mythology (北欧神話)

Myths of the North Germanic peoples (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland and Faroe Islands)
Snorri Sturluson (1178/1179-1241)

"Snorra Edda" (散文のエッダ)
"Heimskringla" (saga)
summarized the myths

Saxo Grammaticus (1150-1220)

"Gesta Danorum" (デンマーク人の事績)


Japan


Zuiganji temple caves
Originally used as an area for memorial services and a cinerarium to house the ashes of the deceased, making of these caves dates back to the Kamakura period (1192-1333) and they continued to use them until the Edo period (1603-1867). In ancient times, Matsushima was called the "Koyasan of Tohoku (東北の高野山)" - a sacred, hallowed ground where many went to pray for safe passage to the Pure Land in their next life.

Masakado-zuka (Masakado's Tomb, 将門塚)
Designated Cultural Property of Tokyo

Masakado The tomb enshrines the decapitated head of Taira no Masakado (903?-940), a descendant of Emperor Kanmu and a hero of the eastern region of Japan. A precursor of the samurai warriors, Masakado carried out political reforms in the Kanto area (the region surrounding Tokyo) and became immensely popular among the common people for helping the weak and poor and fighting against oppressors. His courage and audacity were, in a sense, mirrored in the samurai spirit as well as the ethos Edokko (Tokyoites). In 940, Masakado was defeated and killed in the Tengyo-no-ran (his struggle with the government), and his decapitated head was put on display in Kyoto. Legend has it that his head flew all the way back to the Kanto as a vengeful spirit and finally landed in this spot. People believed that such vengeful spirits, which were thought to cause plagues, could be appeased by worshipping them as guardian deities. Thus it was that in 1309 Masakado was enshrined as one of deities of Kanda Myojin (Kanda Shrine), which was originally located here. Every autumnal equinox the Masakado Tomb Ceremony is held. Also, every other May hundreds of mikoshi (sacred palanquins), including the Masakado Mikoshi that carries his spirit and horen (imperial palanquins) are paraded on the shoulders of hundreds of people throughout the Kanda and Nihombashi areas during Kanda Matsuri (Kanda Festival). At other times of the year, the Masakado Mikoshi rests peacefully in a storehouse at Kanda Myojin and is kept in good repair by the Masakado Tomb Preservation Society.   Guide is also in Chinese and Korea (2019/06/07)
Odawara Castle Ruins (小田原城)
Odawara Castle was first constructed in the middle of the 15th century. The Hojo Family conquered this area early in the 16th century and gradually expanded the castle. The castle, the base of the Hojo Clan during the Warring States period, was one of the largest castles around surrounded by a 9 km moat and fortified by earthen walls. In the Edo period, it was transformed into a castle complex consisting of a castle keep (donjon), watchtowers, gates, stone walls, and a moat as the shogunate’s important western defensive base. The castle complex had been in the same location from the medieval to early modern period. In the modern period following the Samurai era, the castle kept another buildings were dismantled. Also, the stone walls collapsed due to the great Kanto Earthquake. After that, the site of the castle was used as public facilities such as a girl’s school, an elementary school, a baseball field, a library, and so on. Since 1983, however, a castle restoration project has been implemented as "national assets" and "historical park. Ongoing reconstruction is underway for Sumiyoshi moat, Akagane-mon Gate, Umadashi-mon Gate and Goyomai-kuruwa Bailey.

Modern era (近世・近代)


Mughal Empire (ムガル帝国), 1526-1858
Afghanistan → northwestern India
1588 Battle of Armada: Armada Invencible (無敵艦隊) lost
1688-1689 Glorious Revolution (名誉革命)
1707 Kingdom of Great Britain established

= Kingdom of England + Kingdom of Scotland (Kinrick o Scotland)

The early modern period (近世): early 16C - early 19C

1789.7/14-1795.8.22 The French Revolution
The Industrial Revolution (産業革命)

← 1918 (the end of WWI - Europe) →
← 1945 (the end of WWII - Asia) →
The late modern period (近代)
Europe
17 c.: there are only four years without wars
1618-48 The Thirty Year's War (三十年戦争) → the largest religious war

Emperor + Catholicism (旧教徒) + Spain vs
Protestant (新教徒) + Danmark / Sweden / France

→ battle area = Germany
1655-60 The Second Northern War

Sweden vs its adversaries
1655-60 the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1656-58 Russia
1657-60 Brandenburg-Prussia
1657-60 the Habsburg Monarchy
1657-58 / 1658-60 Denmark-Norway

1672-78 The Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (第三次英蘭戦争)
1701-14 The War of the Spanish Succession (スペイン継承戦争)
1733-35 The War of the Polish Succession (ポーランド王位継承戦争)
1735-39 Austro-Russian-Turkish War (露土朝戦争)
1740-48 The War of the Austrian Succession (オーストリア継承戦争)
The French Revolution (フランス革命)
= Revolution of 1789
1789.5.5-1799.11.9
End of the ancient regime
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769.8.15- 1821.5.5)

Reign period: 1804.5.18-1814.4.11. 1815.3.20-1815.6.22 (Hundred Days)
Napoléon II (Napoléon François Charles Joseph, 1811.3.20- 1832.7.22)
Napoléon III (Charles Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, 1808.4.20- 1873.1.9)

Reign period: 1852.12.2-1870.9.4

1815.6.16-18 Battle of Waterloo
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770.12.16?-1827.3.26)

Japan

Ishi masu and wooden condults of waterworks in Edo period

Water
Shimizudani Park on
November 24 2017

This ishi masu (a square box made of stone to connect the water pipe) is a part of mainline (main pipe) of Tamagawa Aqueduct which was excavated from the road around 2-3 Kojimachi Chiyoda-ku during construction work for widening Kojimachi Dori in 1970. It is said that construction of Tamawaga Aqueduct began in 1653 and was completed in June, 1654.
The found aqueduct is a mainline of clean water towards Edo Castle, as shown in the figure, it connects the wooden conduits to a few stacked stone masu. This large ishi masu showss the size of the mainline of waterworks in the Edo period and is reminiscent of the actual city facilities of the time.
The wooden conduits which were excavated with the ishi masu are on display at Chiyoda City's Hibiya Library & Museum.
Tokiwabashi Mon Gate 常盤橋門
The Tokiwabashi Mon Bridge was constructed by the loads of the Dewa and Mutsu Province. It dates from 1629, when Tokyo was known as Edo. Tokiwabashi was a bridge spanning the outer moats of Edo Castle. The gate, which was one of the five major gates of Edo, was also known as Asakusa-guchi or Ote-guchi (kuchi [guchi] means gate). It lead to the Oshu Dochu, the major route leading out of Edo to northern Japan. As passage through Tokiwabashi Gate led directly to the Ote Gate, the main entrance to the inner precincts of Edo Castle, the gate was of strategic military importance. The gate is an uchimasu-gata gateway, which is to say that it includes a square enclosed courtyard which surrounds the area immediately behind the gate. On the north side of the courtyard was a watari-yagura, a defensive structure built across the gate, resting on stone walls. The grand guardhouse was located beyond the gate. The east side of the gate included a kabukimon (a wooden gate made from two pillars and a crossbeam). On the other three sides the gate was surrounded by banks of earth. The Tokiwabashi Mon Gate was destroyed and removed when Japan’s samurai period ended. In 1928, the remaining stone walls, the “new” stone bridge constructed in 1877, and the bridge’s stone wall supports were designated by the government as a national historic site. (Chiyoda City)
The first planned residential district in Edo
(江戸で最初の町割りの地)
Honcho-dori St. is a street that begins at the front gate of the medieval Edo Castle, originally built by Ota Dokan. It leads toward the Sensoji Temple, which has prospered since the ancient times, and continues toward Oshu. After coming to Edo in the Tensho Era (1590), Tokugawa Ieyasu first restored Tokiwabashi, which leads from the front gate of Edo Castle, and then to build a planned residential district (machiwari) along Honcho-dori St. To oversee this district, he appointed Naraya Ichiemon, Taruya Tozaemon, and Kitamura Yahei, all of whom had followed him to Edo. Apart from this, the official gold mint (Kinza※) of the Tokugawa shogunate was established where the Bank of Japan building now stands, and various types of stores lined the main streets, which were crowed by the lines of traveling samurai, traders, and craftsmen. Hence, the history of Honcho as the very first planned township after Tokugawa’s entrance into Edo shall be recorded here so that it may be passed on the future generations.※ Kinza was governed by the Goto family.
September the first of Reiwa 2019   Historical evidence: National Museum of Japanese History, Professor Emeritus, Testuo Tamai

Designated an Important Cultural Property (building) on June 7, 1961

Sakurada-mon Gate of Edo castle

桜田門 Currently called Sakurada-mon, this gate is officially named Sotosakurada- mon, soto meaning "outer" as opposed to the "Uchisakurada-mon" or "inner" Gate (Kikyo Gate) near the citadel. These gates were named Sakurada-mon because the area was called Sakkurada-go (town) in the past.
The Sotosakurada-mon Gate has a dual structure consisting of the Korai Gate on the outside and the Watariyagura Gate on the inside with a square in-between. It covers an exceptionally large area (approx. 1,056 m2) as highly defensive castle gate for the Nishinomaru (west compound). The Sotosakurada-mon Gate was originally built in the Kanei era (1624 to 1644), while the existing gate is based on a gae reconstructed in 1963. The gate was damaged by the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923 and repaired it.
On March 3, 1860, the Japanese Chief Minister Tairo Ii Naosuke was assassinated by a group of samurai who seceded the Mito-han feudal state outside of the Sotosakurada-mon Gate in an event known as the Sakuradamon Incident.
Kakizaki Hakyo (蠣崎波響), 1764-1826
He had two titles: One was "chief retainer of the Matsumae clan." Hakyo, who was a son of daimyo of the Matsumae clan by birth, entered an apprenticeship to become a chief retainer from the age of 18 years, and for 42 years, that is, until he retired at the age of 60 years, he continued to perform a central administrative position within the Matsumae clan. Another was artist/poet. He studied art under the great Edo master So Shiseki from his teens, and later under the famous Kyoto artist, Okyo Maruyama. While devoting himself to the study of art, he had close contact with such poets such as Rikunyo and Chazan Kan, who wrote outstanding Chinese-style poems. Throughout his life, he continued to produce beautiful works of art and also enjoyed Chinese-style poetry. Hakyo, chief retainer who lived in Matsumae, was one of the foremost literary experts of the Edo period. At the time when Hakyo was involved in the administration of the clan culture, that is, around the last part of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, clan history experienced much turbulence. In 1799 Japan's feudal government took direct control of the eastern (Ainu-owned) parts of Ezo to defend the country's northern borders, and in 1807 ,it extended this direct control to include the entire island, and ordered the Matsumae clan to relocate to Yanagawa in Mutsunokuni (Fukushima prefecture on Honshu island). As the chief retainer, it was Hakyo's responsibility to restore the clan to Matsumae, but this period was also a very prolific time for the artist Hakyo who left many paintings dating from this era. Many of his hanging paintings and drawings on folded screens were bought by Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines and wealthy merchants in Matsumae, and it is considered that the funds thus generated were used to promote the return of the Matsumae clan to their former feudal domain. In 1821 the Tokugawa shogunate government allowed Hakyo and his clan to return to Matsumae. To achieve the huge task of the restoration of Matsumae, Hakyo would draw a small picture that he dedicated to the Shinto shrine every morning, and after the restoration of the Matsumae clan, he continued to visit the shrine and offer pictures as a sign of his appreciation. The many works exhibited here each express one part of the various feelings, wishes and passions Hakyo must have experienced.

USA

1775.4.19-1783.9.3 American War of Independence (独立戦争)
= Independence War, American Revolution and Revolutionary War
conflict between Great Britain and thirteen of its North American colonies

1776.7.4 United States Declaration of Independence

Presidents
  1. 1789/04/30-1797/03/04: Washington, George (1732–1799)
  2. 1797/03/04-1801/03/04: Adams, John (1735–1826)
  3. 1801/03/04-1809/03/04: Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826)
  4. 1809/03/04-1817/03/04: Madison, James (1751–1836)
  5. 1817/03/04-1825/03/04: Monroe, James (1758–1831)
    1823 Monroe Doctrine: any intervention in the politics of the Americas by foreign powers was a potentially hostile act against the United States
  6. 1825/03/04-1829/03/04: Adams, John Quincy (1767-1849)
  7. 1829/03/04-1837/03/04: Jackson, Andrew (1767–1845)
  8. 1837/03/04-1841/03/04: Van Buren, Martin (1782-1862)
  9. 1841/03/04-1841/04/04: Harrison, William Henry (1773–1841, dead in office)
  10. 1841/04/04-1845/03/04: Tyler, John (1790-1862)
  11. 1845/03/04-1849/03/04: Polk, James K (1795-1849)
    1846-1848 Mexican-American War (Mexican War)
  12. 1849/03/04-1850/07/09: Taylor, Zachary (1784-1850, dead in office)
  13. 1850/07/09-1853/03/04: Fillmore, Millard (1800-1874)
  14. 1853/03/04-1857/03/04: Pierce, Franklin (1804-1869)
  15. 1857/03/04-1861/03/04: Buchanan, James (1791-1868)
    1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the United States and the Empire of Japan (日米修好通称条約)
  16. 1861/03/04-1865/04/15: Lincoln, Abraham (1809-1865, dead in office)
    1861-1865 American Civil War (南北戦争)
  17. 1865/04/15-1869/03/04: Johnson, Andrew (1808-1875)
  18. 1869/04/04-1877/03/04: Grant, Ulysses S (1822-1885)
  19. 1877/03/04-1881/03/04: Hayes, Rutherford B (1822-1893)

  1. 1881/03/04-1881/09/19: Garfield, James A (1831-1881, dead in office)
  2. 1881/09/19-1885/03/04: Arthur, Chester A (1829-1886)
  3. 1885/03/04-1889/03/04: Cleveland, Grover (1837-1908)
  4. 1889/03/04-1893/03/04: Harrison, Benjamin (1833-1901)
  5. 1893/03/04-1897/03/04: Cleavland, Grover (1837-1908)
  6. 1897/03/04-1901/09/14: McKinley, William (1843-1901, dead in office)
  7. 1901/09/14-1909/03/04: Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919)
  8. 1909/03/04-1913/03/04: Taft, William Howard (1857-1930)
  9. 1913/03/04-1921/03/04: Wilson, Woodrow (1856-1924)
  10. 1921/03/04-1923/08/02: Harding, Warren G (1865-1923, dead in office)
  11. 1923/08/02-1929/03/04: Coolidge, Calvin (1872-1933)
  12. 1929/03/04-1933/03/04: Hoover, Herbert (1874-1964)

    All men are equal before fish

  13. 1933/03/04-1945/04/12: Roosevelt, Franklin D (1882-1945, dead in office)
  14. 1945/04/12-1953/01/20: Truman, Harry S (1884-1972)
  15. 1953/01/20-1961/01/20: Eisenhower, Dwight D (1890-1869)
  16. 1961/02/20-1963/11/22: Kennedy, John F (1917-1963, dead in office)
  17. 1963/11/22-1969/01/20: Johnson, Lyndon B (1908-1973)
  18. 1969/01/20-1974/08/09: Nixon, Richard Milhous (1913-1994, resigned from office)
  19. 1974/08/09-1977/01/20: Ford, Gerald (1913-2006)
  20. 1977/01/20-1981/01/20: Carter, Jimmy (1924-2023)
  21. 1981/01/20-1989/01/20: Reagan, Ronald (1911-2004)
  22. 1989/01/20-1993/01/20: Bush, George HW (1924-2018)
  23. 1993/01/20-2001/01/20: Clinton, Bill (1946-)
  24. 2001/01/20-2009/01/20: Bush, George W (1946-)
  25. 2009/01/20-2017/01/20: Obama, Barack (1961-)
  26. 2017/01/20-2021/01/20: Trump, Donald (1946-) - worst (again...)
  27. 2021/01/20-: Biden, Joe (1942-)

Industrial revolution (産業革命)


1837 Louis Auguste Blanqui firstly used this term → Arnold Toynbee used the term in his work = fixed to a scienific term
Past interpretation: the Industrial Revolusion independently occurred in each country →
Present interpretation: economic discrepancy (e.g., North-South issue) was issue in question, industrialization and economic takeoff
Background
18th century: England
capital accumulation by the woolen industry, etc.
  1. accumulation of capital induced by the woolen industry, etc.
    mechanization of spinning for cotton thread → mass production of high-quality cotton thread + steam engine improved by Watt as input in practical use
    early stage of industrial revolution
    → huge business investment was not required = confidence was more important than the accumulaiton of capital (stock)
  2. Labor force that has flowed into the city is disconnected from the agricultural land by the second enclosure
    First enclosure: leading to urban population influx deprives the rural employment
    Second enclosure: Introducing new technology → more labor force necessary → not generating the surplus labor force

    growing the populations in entire Europe

    Capital accumulation and population growth → common in Europe rather than only in UK
  3. supply of abundant feedstock trough trianglar trade on the Atlantic Ocean
  4. overseas market possible for commodity export = protection of demand and market
    occurrence of demand on woven cotton fabrics made in India → prohibition on the import of calico from any production regions
    = conservation measures of the industry of native woven cotton fabrics → breakthrough of native woven cotton fabrics
    + life revolution → dramatic increasing the demand of various industrial products
    → the formation of domestic market leading industrialization
(1)(2) [Past research] major factors of industrial revolution → [Recent research] not determinants (not important)
1760-early 19C First Industrial Revolution
Origination of Industrial revolution
technological innovation

industry by simple device (eg, factory-system handicraft industry) → industry-system, machine-driven industry using complex device and machine
→ mass production → the development of capitalism → extreme fluctuations of society and politics
cotton textile industry: solved by power loom invention → mechanization of the processes of weaving clothes delayed
→ the revolution propagated to iron manufacturing, transportation facilities, etc.

Cotton textile industry and slave trade
England: active cotton textile industry ↔ the industrial revolution started from cotton textile industry
17C: cotton made in India → popular

cotton requirekd for slave trade → barter cotton for slave

18C: cotton demand↑ →

invenstion and improvement machines to produce cotten that was cheaper than cotton made in India
→ the development costs supplied from the benefits of slave trade

Breadth of industrial revolution
England: capitalist-labor structrue = establishing capitalist society in the early stages →

aggravation of interest opposition between capitalists and labors

+ middle of 19C: workshop of the world = prosperity ↔

India became immiseration derived from bankrupt of textile trade, owing to the high dependence of raw cotton export rather than cotton porducts

→ Industrial revolution followd by France, Germany, USA, etc.

→ These countries colonized countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America to obtain cheap crude materials and to sell enormous amounts of goods

Japan (日本)

The development of light manufacturing based on the power sources of coal and steam engine

England (18C): spontaneity developed → follwed by
France and Germany (19C): controlled by the governments in their countries

Case England
The industrial revolusion occurred firstly in the world (the delay of industrial revolution in the other countries was induced by the fast development of industrial revolution in England - one opinion)
1760-1830 (the opinion is divided)
The fuel revolution (燃料革命) and the improvement of iron-making technology
→ the explosive consumption of wood coal → rapid deforestation
→ fuels changing from wood coal to pit coal = fuel revolution
iron-making process using coke mede of pit coal discovered by Darby A → the production of machines made of iron became easily
the development of power sources: coal mining (the treatments of ground water were obstacles)

1712 Newcomen T: steam-engined drain pump in practical use
1785 Watt J: success in chanigng from piston motion to circle motion on the energy of steam engine → the applications of steam engine

The improvements of weaving machine (loom) and spinning machine (spinner)

1733 Kay John: invented flying shuttle (飛び杼) that is a part of weaving machine → speeding up = productivity enhancement → cotton yarn shortage
1764 Hargreaves James: invented spinning jenny (ジェニー紡績機)
1769 Arkwright Richard, Sir: water frame (水力紡績機)
1779 Crompton Samuel: spinning mule (ミュール紡績機) → having the characteristics of both spinning jenny and water frame
1789 Cartwright Edmund: invented power loom of which power source was steam engine (improved from spinning mule)
→ rapid growth of productivity

Development of transportation capacity

1802 Trevithick Richard: invented steam locomotive called Penydarren
1807 Fulton Robert: invented commercially successful steamboat called Clermont
1814 George Stephenson George: improved steam locomotive invented by Trevithick

1865-1900 Second Industrial Revolution
the heavy industry developed by the power sources working with oil and motor
England
cotton production area = USA → after the autarky (economic independence) peformed by the American War of Independence (1775-1783) and the Civil War
→ supply center of raw cotton changed to India

Second Industrial Revolution in England was lead by overseas colonies for import of materials and export of artifacts
+ one more cause of second industrial revolution in England was that England won France the battle of obtaining overseas colonies
got worldwide hegemony on fiber industry
↔ delay of the development of the heavy chemical industry in late 19th Century
→ caught-up by Germany and USA

Factors
  1. new industry was not required because of the success in the light industry
  2. transformation to the heavy industry delayed becasue of the industry structure that was made by numerous minor businesses
  3. no governmental protective blanket, e.g., no customs, under liberalism (↔ protective blanket and industrial development promoted by Germany Government
→ customs requested for overseas products by English industrial arena
→ promoting reform of custom duty (central character, Chamberlain Neville
↔ the government had not adopted the custom duty because of the policy of liberal trade

possible to interpret that England depressed because of the liberal trade
one cause that the breakdown between the industrial capital and finance capital

→ a matter of life or death for the industrial capital

Small problem: England market occupied by manufactures made in Germany
Big problem: decline in German industries → non-salvageable capital

Ex. late 19 c-early 20 c: deficit balance of merchandise trade in total

black-ink balance: distribution service (marine transportation business) and insurance business, such as government bond and equity
→ black-ink balance in current account (that compensate the slackness of transportation and industry business)

England became an industrial nation at the first brush

high market share of light industry manufacture
↔ it does not mean the exclusion of the other countries

Factor

→ current-account surplus → compensating the slackness of manufacturing business on importation
different perspective: emerging potential demand by importing high-quality and high-price manufactures → market expansion → contributing the industrialization of newly-industrializing countries the had produced low-price and low-quality manufactures

Germany: industrial revolution, established by high economic domain occurring with the background of custom-duty alliance (often compared with England)
  1. expansion investment
  2. occurrence of monopolies
  3. innovation in technology based on scientific evidences
achievement of chemistry and military affair → becoming a major nation, as well as England
USA: industrial revolution due to the surge of industrial regions in northern USA induced by protective trade after the Civil War

big cities were developed in the western and eastern edges of broad continent → the boom of the construction of coast-to-coast railroads → developing industrialization
+ monopolies developed on each industrials
+ glory and envy to business people → attractive not only to interior but also abroad
→ major driver of development

Effects on societies
Social government affected by monopolist capitalists → market expansion for enlarging activities

re-realizing the importance of occupied territories as market
→ imperialism → the first world war

Mass production → price down
→ work under adverse environment + urbans falling into slum wino (+ hygiene issue)
generalization of factory work induced by the industrial revolution → formation of laboring class

people in laboring class could not get the voting right even by the first amendment of election law
→ backlash → Chartism to get the voting right
→ birth of socialism (to improve the malady of capitalism)
1867: the second amendment of election law (Chartism failed)

laboring-class people in urban areas got the voting right

Urbanization: progressed by the concenetration of labors

newly-emerged social problems: foul living conditions, over-population, worsening security, etc.

Economic structure
Industrial revolution → development of capitalism → emergence of monopolist capital mixed with finance capital and industrial capital

monopolist capital → influenced the politics, because monopolist capital tried to expand the "market" with the government


1525-1701 Principality of Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen, プロセイン公国)
1701-1918 Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen, プロセイン王国)
1871-1918 German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich, ドイツ帝国)

Wilhelm I (1797-1888): 1871 first emperor (1871-1888)

The Opium War (阿片戦争)
1840-1842 The First Opium War

Qing (清, 1644-1912) vs British Empire
Treaty of Nanking (南京条約)

1856-1860 The Second Opium War

Qing vs British and Second French Empire (1852-1870)
Treaty of Tientsin (天津条約) and Treaty of Peking (北京条約)

1911.09.29-1912.10.18 Italo-Turkish War (トリポリの戦い)
1912-1913 Balkan War (バルカン戦争)

1912.10.08-1913.05.30 First Balkan War
1913.06.1913.29-08.10 Second Balkan War

World War I (1914-1918)
The Balkan Peninsula = powder keg of Europe (欧州の火薬庫)
1914.06.28 Assassination at Sarajevo
1917 Russian Revolution

03.08-16 February Revolution (O.S. 02.23-03.03)
11.07 October Revolution (O.S. 10.25)

1920 established League of Nations

Art

van Gogh, Vincent Willem (1853.03.30-1890.07.29)

many counterfeit paintings


Providence (プロビデンス号)

The British ship "Providence" Lands in Abuta
On September 15, 1796 (Aug. 14, 1796 of Kansei Calendar), the Her Majesty's Ship Providence, lead by the British explorer Capt. William Robert Broughton, arrived and anchored off Abuta (Irie).
Receiving an urgent message, the Matsumae Clan dispatched one of their clansmen but he was unable to communicate with the crewmen verbally. On September 26 (Aug. 25 of Kanssei Calendar), another clansman, who had experienced with receiving Russians, was dispatched, and inspected the ship, gave them permission to copy the chart of the northern Japanese islands and asked them to leave.
In the meantime, the crewmen of the Providence went ashore at the mouth of the Horonai River by boat, drew drinking water, cut firewood from Mt. Horonai-nupuri (Mountain of SHIMIZU) and returned to the ship.
The whole story is handed down throught the yukar oral epic told by Taneranke Toshima.
On September 29 (Aug. 28 of Kanei Calendar), the Providence moved to Cape Etomo, surveyed the port of Mororan (Muroran), and on October 1 (Aug. 30 of Kansei Calendar), set sail for Cape Esan.
Captain Broughton is remembered as the person who named Funka Bay (Uchiura Bay).

Modern ages (現代)


The global economic crisis (世界恐慌)
1929~late 1930s'

Mussolini, Benito Amilcare Andrea (1883.07.29-1945.04.28)
Farinacci, Roberto (1892.10.16-1945.04.28)
1935-36 Second Italo–Ethiopian War
1936-39 Spanish Civil War
1939-45 World War II (WWII or WW2, 第二次世界大戦)

1939.09.01 German invasion of Poland

1939 Battles of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan Incident, ノモンハン事件)

Soviet–Japanese border conflicts

1941.04 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Treaty (日ソ中立条約)
1944.06.06- Invasion of Normandy (ノルマンティ上陸作成) = D-Day

→ Operation Overlord

1944.12-1945.01 Operation Overlord (バルジの戦い)
1945 United Nation (HO, New York)
1949 People's Republic of China founded (= Mao Tse-tung, 毛沢東)

The government of the Republic of China escaped to Taiwan (= Chiang Kai-shek, 蒋介石)

1968 Prague Spring (プラハの春): reform movement in Czechoslovakia
1970 Muskie Act
UK (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
1801 established United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
1919-1921 Irish War of Independence
1927 changed to the present name

European Union, EU (ヨーロッパ共同体)

1952 May 9: European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) → origin

the inner six: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg (Benelux)
free trade on coal and steel, walfare

1958: European Economic Community, EEC (ヨーロッパ経済共同体)

free movement of persons and trades

1958: European Atomic Energy Community, Euratom (ヨーロッパ原子力共同体)

development and utilization of nuclear power in Europe

1967: EU → ECSC + EEC + Euratom → no economical barrier

12 countries = ECSC + Ireland, England, Denmark, Portugal + Spain

1992 European Union, EU

Security: security policy based on NATO
Diplomatic policy: unanimous vote on common diplomatic policies
Currency system: established European Central Bank, European currency (Euro)

→ expanded European Union

1995: 15 countries = 12 countries + Austria, Finland and Sweden
2002: 25 countries = 15 countries + Czech, Esthonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia

Present
28 member states for an economic and political union
Problems
authorization of each natio bicoming weak + difficulties in building a consensus among the nations = regional disparities
agriculture policy: agricultural protection → excess production = financial crisis

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, OPEC (石油輸出国機構)

1960.09.10-14: Baghdad Conference

OPEC created by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela
Objectives: coordinating petroleum policies among member countries to secure the stable prices of petroleum products - collectively influence the global market and maximize profit

1970s restrictions in oil production
1976 established OPEC fund - abrupt rise in oil prices
2016 OPEC+: establsihed for controlling the global crude oil market

Global warming (地球温暖化)

100 years
CO2 concentrations over the past 1000 years recorded in ice core samples taken at D47, D57, and the siple base and the South Pole, and from CO2 concentrations recorded at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii since 1958. All ice core samples were collected in the Antarctica. The smooth curve shows 100 year moving average changes (IPCC 1995).

Green Party (Greens) (緑の党)

environmentalist political parties
1983.03.06 West Germany: Greens (27 people) advanced to the Diet

Slogan: alternative
Doctrine: ecology, society, non-violence and grassroots democracy

⇒ nature conservation and anti-nuclear

José Mujica (ホセ・ムヒカ)
José Alberto "Pepe" Mujica Cordano (1935-2015)
2010-2015 President of Uruguay

the world's humblest head of state
Life can set us a lot of snares, a lot of bumps, we can fail a thousand times, in life, in love, in the social struggle, but if we search for it we'll have the strength to get up again and start over. The most beautiful thing about the day is that it dawns. There is always a dawn after the night has passed. Don't forget it, kids. The only losers are the ones who stop fighting. (2014 UNASUR)

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