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Mount Usu / Sarobetsu post-mined peatland
From left: Crater basin in 1986 and 2006. Cottongrass / Daylily
HOME > Lecture catalog / Research summary > Glossary > Interspecific interaction
Interspecific interaction (異種個体間相互作用)Interrelationships between populations
predation (捕食) (+/-) mutualism (双利共生) (+/+), commensalism (片利共生) (+/0) Antagonism (拮抗作用)Parasitism (寄生)[+ parasite, – host]Adelphoparasite (同種寄生): a parasite that is closely related to its host (e.g., both placed in the same family) Ectoparasite [+, -], external paratisism (外部寄生): a parasite living on the outside of its hosthaustorium (pl. -a, 吸器): that protion of a parasite that penetrates host cells and absorbs nutrients Endoparasite [+, -], internal paratisism (内部寄生): a parasite living within the hostIndexces of interspecific interaction
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(Armas et al. 2004) RIIBw = Bo + ΔBF - ΔBC
Bw: biomass observed by the target plant grown with other plants ΔBFC: observed biomass change = absolute effect of the interaction ∴ Bw - Bo = ΔBFC-Bo ≤ ΔBFC ≤ +∞ ΔBFC/Bw = ΔBFC/(ΔBFC + Bo)if only facilitation occurs, ΔBFC ranges from 0 to 1 |ΔBFC| ≤ |ΔBFC + Bo|
if only competition occurs, ΔBFC is negative but the above equation may not be true, as the index has an unlimited range [-∞ 0]
= ΔBFC/(ΔBFC + 2Bo) |
Natural enemy (天敵)k(N): ratre of predation - number of preys ingested by a predator in a given timeN: population density of prey
1. k(N) = kN: Lotka-Volterra what equation (1-3) is apporpriate is determined by the prey-predator interaction number of predators: Y = constant 1. dN/dt = r(1 – N/k)n – k(N)Y___(k(N) = kN same with capturing) ______________A______B
A: assuming that the number of individuals follows logistic growth
p > p*: extinction
__(a)_______________(b)_________________(c)
(a) two stable systems exist Predator-prey interactions (食う-食われる関係)Defense strategy (防衛戦略)1974 Edmunds: classifed primary and secondary defensesPrimary defense (indirect defense)before a predator attacks its prey or defense with or without its predator= preventing detection or identification seclusion (隠遁) Ex. earthworm, nocturnal insects during daytime
disadvantages: decrease in the chances of reproduction and feeding + combined with secondary defense camouflage (模倣) making animals or objects hard to see1904 di Cesnola AP: Mantis religiosa - cryptic coloration
mantis plant green brown 18 day later (survived/prepared)
9 ggs buried at 50 cm intervals (3 replications) - 24/27 eaten by crow → adjustment of population density warning Ex. aposematismpredator must learn the unfavorable preys
learning and conditioning of predtor + Ex. Plant: Foxglove = glaring flower + poison 1921 Carpenter GDH: feed the monkeys various insects (lab-experiment)220 glaring species - fed 20% vs 155 discreet species - 73% 1972 Benson: Heliconius erato (red postman)
developing unpalatability and protective coloration Ex. Vespa (hornets) and Vespula (wasps) develping yellow and black stripes for most species Batesian mimicry (ベーツ型擬態): a harmless species is protected from predators by its resemblance to a harmful or inedible speciesprerequisite: present harmful or inedible species (model) mimics is extinct when the model is extinct
upper limit: mimics can not be dominant - predator will learn |
1952 De Ruiter, L: Garrulus glandarius (predator)
not distinguish Ennomos alniaria (prey) and branches 1969 (and others): Danaus plexippus - infraspecific mimicry
becoming bad taste when moths eat Asclepias humistrata and A. curassavica, due to cardenolides in Asclepias 1971 beetle (prey) - morphologically similar with ants predator (bird) - avoid feeding preys (beetles) when ants are together predator - feed insects excluded by ants collective defense (sometimes secondary defense)alliance defense (sometimes secondary defense) Secondary defense (direct defense)after a predator attacks its prey= chemical and morphological defenses, protect prey when attacked by predators
passive secondary defense - usual
running away to a hideout (1) developed barricade represented by protective hatch Ex. neck and head of turtle flight (flying behavior) (逃走): enhanced by two behaviors shown below,
protean: running in an uncertain and unpredictable way
lacks strong defences Ex. motion, stance, alarm signals
intimidation hypothesis: the preys intimidate predator by their own enemy which gives them time to flee away death feigning (擬死) deflection/diversion (陽動)1952 Simomns: Charadrius alexandrinus (Kentish plover) large terrestrial predator: found a chick or chicks
→ parent: quietly leaves → parent: ostentatious behavior generally developing high self-renewal capacity aggressive defense (counterattack)
poison, tusk, etc. Group defensemobbing: preys mob a predator by cooperative attack or harassingEx. herd of herbivores, defensive roundness heterogenous-species group, formed for the cooperation of preysEx. ant - prey(s): the prays need to make collaboration with the ants mimicry to ant (and living with the ant) Interspecific cooperationwith ant1963 Way: aphid-ant interaction to avoid the predator(s) Ex. Aphis favae - foraging more accompanied by ants (Lasius) the aphid forages even without the ant - facultative dependence Ex. Protrama - Saissetia zanzibarensis (coccid) honeydew removed by ant (die if not) - obligatory depencence 1945 Ford EB: Phengaris (Maculinea) arion
first-thrd instar larva - herbivorous feed on larvae - becoming carnivorous (= parasite) 1971 Hölldobler: Dinandra (rove beetle) - Formica sanguinearove beetle living adjacent to ant nest with echinoderm: evacuation site for preys1969 Dix TG: Evechinus chloroticus - Dellichthys morelandi with coelenterata: cnida used for cooperative defense 1966 Rees WJ: Gadus merlangus (cod)
facultative symbiosis with Cyanea lamarcki (jellyfish) Nomeus gronovii (man-of-war fish) - mimicry (opligatory dependent) Ex. symbiosis between sea anemone and hermit crabCalliactis on Dardanus and Pagurus
Sea anemone: moved with crab - getting food symbiosis - initiated by the sea anemone 1969 Manardi, Rossi: Adamsia palliata - P. prideauxicrab: presence of behavioral order to replace sea anemone 1970 Ross: C. polypus always on D. gemmatussea anemone on the shell - navigated by the crab 1971 Ross: crab - sea anemone - octopus (predator) (lab-experiment)crab without sea anemone → eaten by octopus within 3 days |
Def. competition in which individuals of different species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem
⇔ Intraspecific competition: competition between members of the same species |