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(2016年11月22日更新. 修論・D論期間中は(でなくても)日々修正) [ 日本語 | English ]

英語論文を書く時の作法






有珠山 / サロベツ泥炭採掘跡
1986年, 2006年の有珠山火口原. ワタスゲ・エゾカンゾウ

[ はじめに | 冗長 | 会話 | 論文 ]
[ 文法 用語 ]

[ 冠詞 | 名詞 | 動詞 | 不定詞 | 前置詞 | 形容詞 ] [ 参考 ]

こいつらのおかげといえばおかげ。増えすぎたので、独立したページを作ってみたり。どこまでが、「はじめに」なのか分からなくなったが、とりあえず作っておこう。
ハイフォネーション (hyphenation)
論文では気にすることはないが …
欧文文書作成時の行末処理方法の一つ。単語を分割しハイフンを挿入すること ↔ ワードラップ (word wrap): 単語を分割せず次の行に送ること 今日日、ワープロが勝手にハイフォネーションしてくれるので、気にしてないようだけど、音節で切るという規則はあるので辞書で確認すべし。

Ex. com·pre·hen·sive

はじめに」以前


論法以前の問題が多発してるので、若干のものを列挙しておくと
P. australis was likely to establish in the immediate stages between BG and MJ.
MX that had highest plant cover and immediate litter thickness
明らかにintermediateとmoderateの間違い。少しだけ意味を考えれば、分かるのに。それとも、意味を間違えて覚えていて、それが正しいとして直さないのか。もっとひどいと意味不明で直しようもない(最近、そんなのばかり...)。
⇒ こんなの意味分かるわけがない! 日本語だろうが英語(もどき)だろうが、これは赤をいれるのは無理!

N concentration (TN and NH4+) of Sph site as original mire showed the lower than other three sites, and Bare site showed the highest NH4+ concentration of the three sites.

再三再四だが、日本語にして考えよ。

germinated seedlings

「発芽した実生」って ... 発芽しない実生(または発芽していない実生)なんてあるの。'germinated'は不要。

shoots and litter sprouts ...

リターのモヤシ、何だそれ。仮に、sproutが動詞ならsは不要だし。そうするとlitterが萌芽 ... する分けもないし。

論文を英語で書くために

[鉄則]
英語論文を読む。 使える表現はノート!
辞書を引く: Oxford, Webster等権威ある辞書 + 専門用語辞典
「日本語」をそのまま英文にすると「英語らしい文章にならない」場合 → 英文は強調点を先に述べる

条件Aを加えると反応はうまくいかなかった
→ The reaction did not progress well when A was added.

日本人が気をつけるべき用法usage
  1. 冠詞 a (an), the
  2. 前置詞
  3. 句読点 punctuation: comma (,), period (.), colon (:), semi-colon (;), hyphen (-), dash (-), apostrophe (')
  4. 副詞: 文中での位置
  5. 関係代名詞・関係副詞
それ以外の自分が苦手とするもの。
心得 (日本語だって)

実は、上に書いたことはNativeでも悩むのだ。下の分は、Jonに論文見てね、とメールして、直してくれた添付ファイル付メールについてたメッセージ。でもね、これらは、日本語だって、悩むでしょ。思い出すと、ワシントン大学にいる時にJonに論文見てもらったら、「ちょっと、こっち来てくれ」というから、行ったら、一対一で、文章直されてるのはいいんだが、声を出して原稿を読みながら、"... Need 'the'"とか言いながら、文章直してもらってた。で、冠詞は難しいのか、と聞いたら、"Everytimes"と返事されて、そうなのね、と思った記憶がある。結局、日本語がデタラメなら、英語もデタラメになるのは必然なのだ。

Hi Shiro,
Attached is your manuscript. I hope I have improved it -- I am sure that I made some mistakes. I am still worried about tense and commas. Please feel free to ask about anything I changed. I am sorry for when I did not understand what you were trying to say. Please feel free to send it to me again.
... 以下は、オバマ政権に関する内容なので削除 ...
Jon

日本人が書く英語である限り、綺麗な日本語に訳せない英文は、やっぱり可笑しな英文となることの方が普通だろう。論文を書く作業中に、行き詰ったら、日本語で考えて、それを英語にしているはず。逆に言えば、日常、変な日本語を使っていると、いかなる他国語も正確に使いこなせない。日頃、正確な日本語を話す努力を怠らないことが大事である。
上と矛盾するように感じるかもしれないが、日本人の書いたJapanese English論文の真似はしないこと。最善を尽くしても、所詮、完璧な英語にならない。外人と言ったも、英語・米語が母国語の人が書いたものを参考にすること。スペインとかフランスとかドイツとか、中国とか韓国とかの人のは、日本人の英語と同じ位に参考にしてはいけない。ちなみに、George Bushの英語は南部訛りが酷いのがよく話題となるが、ワシントン大学にいる時に、ゼミで"Interesting paper. But the English is poor."と紹介されたのは、Texas大学の人の論文であった。合州国の中でも、英語(米語)はかなり違う。

小林 (2003)

(英語)表現のポイント
  1. 長い文章避ける (声に出し読んだ時に息が切れれば長すぎ)
  2. 冗漫な回りくどい表現は避ける (受動態を避ける)
  3. 明快で具体的な用語を使う
  4. 力強く的確な動詞を使う
  5. 読者が誰かを念頭に置く
  6. 文章表現の向上には推敲が不可欠
  7. 多種多様な文献を読む

表現

英語と米語はかなり違うので、意識して書くべき。少なくとも、私は英語はよく分からない。カナダで、セントレ・メートレ・カラウラーとか書いてあったが、あれはcenter, meter, colorのことかしら。論文でよく使うanalyzeはanalyseだったし。ということで、いろんな人が書いた論文を切り貼りして論文を作ると、何が起こるか想像して欲しい。例えれば、茨城弁と大阪弁と鹿児島弁をごちゃまぜにした文章ができあがることになる。自分なりの文章が書けるようでないといけない。この前、西オーストラリア大の人に論文見てもらったらfavorがfavourと直されてたのは悲しかったが。

スタイル

スタイルについて、まず思うのは、昔は、主語に"I"とか"We"を使うのは論文らしくないとされたが、その風潮はもはやない(私の指導教官は絶対にIとかWeは使わなかった - 英語は完璧に近いので誤解なきよう)。ただし、"I"とか"We"が1ページに10箇所も出ると、さすがに五月蝿い。これは、IとかWeを主語にすると受動態文をとらなずに済むなら、文章が短くできることに一つの理由がある。同じことを言うなら短い文章の方が良いに決まってる。I, Weを主語にしなくても短い文章にできるなら、そうするべき。
 同様に、英語にも文語・口語の違いはある。これも、昔ほど厳しくはない雑誌が増えてるが、文頭が"And"とか"But"で始まる文章は、まず見ないはず(NatureとかScienceで増えてるので、これから他の雑誌でもそうなると思う)。a lot ofなんていうのも論文で見たことあるのかしら。

涙目になる瞬間... 口語文は、発音に合わせるので、短縮形が使われることがあるというのは、中学校あたりでやったような。論文で、左の形は見たことないと思うんだけど。

don't → do not
doesn't → does not
can't → can not / cannot
その他諸々...

文法上の時制にも、いろいろ問題があるのだが、論文を書く上での時制に注意して欲しい。原則として"Results"は過去形で書くのが筋なはず。"Discussion"は、昔は、自分の結果に関する部分は過去形、一般化された見解については現在形という使い分けが多かった。最近は、"Discussion"では、自分の結果でも一般化できる(と思わせられる)部分は現在形で書くようになりつつある。ただし、さすがに、"Results"は、未だ過去形で書くのが約束のようなもの。論文のスタイルも時代の流れで変わるから、その辺には、敏感であるべき(要するに最近の雑誌はよく読むこと)。ついでながら、"Result"と書いてる人がいるが、結果は一つしかないの...

There is no significant effect ...
結果で、こう書かれるとしょんぼりする。There were no significant effects on ...だと思うけど。

韻律 (prosody, rhythm)


韻律は文章の流れを助ける = よい文章は一般に響きがよい: 文法 + 習慣的言い方 colloquial + 韻律
読みやすくなる / ニュアンスの違いを表現できる / 韻律により強調したい部分を強調可
  1. 意図的ではない頭韻 Ex. with bundle bans bending, rather regularly radial
  2. sの繰り返し Ex. such a sense of success
  3. sを必要としない語につける Ex. towards, forwards
  4. シラブルの反復 Ex. appropriate approach, continue to contain, protection in connection with infection
  5. 音調繰り返し Ex. found around, elaborate laboratory facilities, with respect to the effect
  6. 同根語反復 Ex. a locality located, the following procedure should be followed, except for rare exceptions
  7. 意味を変え言葉を繰り返す。Ex. a point to point out
バランス
Parallel construction: 幾つかの句が、意味、役割において似ているか比較対照される関係にあるときは、同じ形で表現する
Examples
○ in March, April, or May / in March, in April, or in May × in March, April, or in May
○ It is time not for word but for action. × It is time not for word but action.
× Let G be a group and H be a subgroup. ○ Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup. ○ Let G be a group and H a subgroup.
語順
文法というより習慣的なもの強い → 間違いではないが曖昧な文章のもと
○ The results obtained indicate the loss of … ×The obtained results indicate the loss of …
○… and A was determined by a method different from that for B
×… and A was determined by a different method from B
○ The differentiation of X induced by Y ×The induced differentiation of X by Y

文法 (grammar)


There are numerous grammatical mistakes, especially in the use of articles (the, a) and prepositions (on, of, etc.)
とある雑誌のレフェリーコメント。日本人が苦手とする部分が良く分かってよろしい。
これすごいな(もっとあるけど、自分が具合悪くなる)

 今年(2010年冬記す)は、最強だ。皆目分からんのが続く。

The data of their studies showed nothing was difference more than the difference of species on the effects of UV absorbing substances, i.e., there were no relationships between succession sere and UV sensitivity, given the UV sbsorbance.

  1. dataはdatumの複数なんで、wasはwere (もっとも、最近は単数扱いを認めてる雑誌も増えてるんで構わないが)。
  2. 文語的にshowedの後にはthatを入れないと。論文では、省略しない。
  3. differenceはdifferent。Nothing was differenceを訳すと、「何もないのは違わない。」、それはそうだが。
  4. 綴りは間違えてるし。
  5. あとは、分からん。よって、ポイ。
単語を並べればよいといものではない
会話なら、それでも何とかなるものだが。
  • At high altitude severe climates ...
  • All though these treatment, the significant differences of germination pattern between D. anglica and D. rotundifolia.

対句法 parallelism

有名なのは、Veni, vidi, vici (来た、見た、勝った) by Ceasarだろう。論文も読んでるとたくさん出てくるんだが。

文・節・句 (sentence, clause, and phrase)


(sentence)

思想が言葉で表されたもの = 主語 + 述部 (谷口 1977)
構造
  • 単文 simple sentence: 1つの「主語 + 述部」 The dog barked.
  • 重文 compound sentence: 複数の単文 A stranger knocked at the door, and the dog barked.
  • 複文 complex sentence: 従位接続詞結合 = 主節 + 従属接続詞
    Everybody knows [that + I am poor.] [従属接続詞 + 名詞節・形容詞節・副詞節]
  • 混文 mixed sentence: 重文/複文混じる It was getting dark, and when a stranger knocked at the door, the dog barked.
  • 省略文 elliptical sentence: (I will) See you again.
意味
  1. 平叙文 declarative sentence: 事実をそのまま述べる
    a. 肯定文 affirmative sentence
    b. 否定文 negative sentence
  2. 疑問文 interrogative sentence: 物事を尋ねる
    受け方: this/that → it, these/those → they
  3. 命令文 imperative sentence: 命令や依頼を表す
  4. 感嘆文 exclamatory sentence: (強い)感情を表す - 論文に不要

文型 (林 1977)

  1. S + V: I cry for you.
  2. S + V + C: Life is very short.
  3. S + V + O: It took a long time.
  4. S + V + IO + DO: I can show you a better time.
  5. S + V + O + C (or OC): You made me glad.
S + V(授与動詞) + IO(間接目的語) + DO(直接目的語)
send, bring, show, lend, teach, tell, pay, pass, hand, write, read, etc.
S + V + IO + DO ⇒ S + V + O + to/for -

He gave her a nice present. ⇒ He gave a nice present to her.
Father bought me a bicycle. ⇒ Father bought a bicycle for me.

S + V(知覚動詞 see, 使役動詞 make, have) + O + C(目的格補語)
O = C
see + O + 原形動詞: Oが-するのを見る I saw him get off the bus. → I saw him getting off the bus.
make + O + 原形動詞: Oに-させる I can't make him understand what I mean.
make + O + p.p.: Oが-されるようにする I can't make myself understood in English.
have + O + 原形動詞: Oに-させる(してもらう)、-される I must have him wash the car. I had a tiresome visitor come yesterday.
have + O + p.p.: Oを-させる(してもらう)、-される I must have my car washed. I had my car stolen.

節 clause

重文、複文、混文の中にある「主語 + 述部」のこと
等位節
1 + 等位接続詞 (and, but, or, nor, etc.) + 2 [1 = 2]
Hes turnedv off the light1 and (he)s wentv to bed2.
主節と従(属)節
等位接続詞以外の接続詞、関係代名詞、関係副詞でつながる文
He felt no fear (主節) since the general was brave (従節).

複文の従節 = 名詞節、形容詞節、副詞節

A. 名詞節 noun clause:

That he will succeednnc is certaion.

That clause: that = -ということ
a) 主語

That you are honest S is true. → It is true that you are honest.

b) 目的語. Ex. I S know V that you are honest O.

原則: that clauseは前置詞の目的語に用いない。例外: but, except, in, saveの目的語
They are exactly the same except that one speaks a little faster than the other.

c) 補語. Ex. My first impression S is V that you are honest C.
d) 同格

This is the proof that you are honest. = I am sure (of the fact) that you are honest.
if: -かどうか(ということ) Ex. I don't know if you are honest.
whether - [or not (no)]: -か否か(ということ) Ex. I don't know whether you are honest (or not).

= It - if [whether] … ⇒ It is not known (for me) if [whether] you are honest (or not).

B. 形容詞節 adjective clause = 関係詞 + …

Ex. I know the man who wrote this bookajd.

接触節 contact clause = 関係詞なしの形容詞節
  1. 目的語になる関係代名詞を省く
    This is the very book I want to read.
  2. 補語になる関係代名詞を省く
    I am not the man I used to be.
  3. 関係副詞を省く
    This is the place a big dam will be built.
  4. [there (here) + be動詞]で始まる節に関係代名詞を省く
    He taught me the difference there is between culture and snobbery.
C. 副詞節 adverb clause
= 接続詞 + 平叙文
副詞節と主節はどちらが先でも良いが、接続詞を常に従属節の先頭につける

When he called on meadc→, I was watching TV.
I read this book while you were out. → While you were out, I read this book.

場所」を表す副詞節

where: (場所) Ex. The accident occurred where the road curved sharply to the left. (場合) Where there is a will there is a way. 意志のあるところに道は開ける
wherever: (強化)(譲歩)

」を表す副詞節

when: -する時に
while: -する(している)間に

(just) as: (丁度)-する時に [as = when, while]

whenever: -する時はいつも(強化), たとえいつ-しても(譲歩)
every time (= each time) (接続詞的に用いることもある)

Every time he speaks English, he cries. 彼は英語を話す度に、泣く

once: 一度-すると(すれば、したからには) [副詞的]

Once you hesitate you are lost. 一度躊躇すれば君はもうだめだ。

now (that): 今や-してみると(したからには) [thatのない時に注意] → 「時」 + 「理由」

主節 + before: … してからやっと-

I (had) tired for a long time before I succeeded.
had not + p.p. + before -: ~しないうちに-した
not - till (until): ~して初めて-

We do not realize the value of health until we lose it. [強調構文 It is not until - that ~ Ex. It was not until I saw him that I was reminded of my promise.]

原因・理由」の従属(従位)接続詞
because: -だから、ゆえに[原因理由をもっとも直接的に表す

because > since > as
I like his speech because it is inspiring.
not - because ~: ~だから(といって)-ではない

I do not like his speech because it is instructive. 私は彼の演説が有益だからというので好きなのではない

not because - but because ~: ~だからではなくて-だから
partly because - partly because ~

I like his speech partly because it is inspiring, and partly because of its humor.

since: -だから、-からには(時を表すには普通、主節後に来る

It is ten years since he went to America.
Since you ask, I must tell you. 君が聞くからには、私は言わねばならぬ

as: -だから、-ので

As it is so late, we had better get a taxi. 非常に遅いので、タクシーに乗る方がよいだろう
as ~, so …: ~であるように … である

As the touchstone tries gold, so gold tries men. 試金石が黄金を試すように、黄金が人を試す

A is to B as (what) C is to D: AのBに対する関係は、CがDに対する関係と同じである ⇒ 比例 A:B = C:D

Water is to fishes, as (what) air is to men.

As C is to D, so is A to B: CがDに対するように、AはBに対している

As air is to men, so is water to fishes.

It is in (with) A as in (with) B: Aの場合はBの場合と同じ

It is in studying as in eating; he who does it gets the benefit and not he who sees it done. 勉学はちょうど食事をするのと同じ様なもので、実際それをする人が利益を受け、それを見ている人ではない

for: というのは-だから [前の節に対する補足的な説明として用いられる]

He was angry, for his voice was harsh. 彼は怒っていた、というのは声が荒々しかったからだ。× 声が荒々しかったから怒っていた。

inasmuch as, whereas ≈ because, since (whereasはwhileの意でも使う)
seeing (that): -であるからには

Seeing (that) he refused to help us, we need not now help him. 彼は我々を手伝うことを拒否したからには、我々は彼を手伝う必要はない

in that: 1) なぜなら, 2) -ということにおいて

1) In that you are busy, let me tell you briefly. 君は忙しいので、簡単に言おう
2) Men differ from brutes in that they can think and speak. 人は考え話すということで獣と違う

on the ground that 節 [→ on the ground of (句)]: -という理由で

He wishes to resign on the ground that his health is failing. → … on the ground of his failing health.

not that - but that (because) ~: a) -だからでなく、~だから, b) -という意味(こと、訳)ではなく~ということだ

Not that I am unwilling but that I have no time. 気が進まないからではなくて、時間がないからだ

what with - and (what with): -やら~やらで

What with teaching, and (what with) writing, he wore himself out.教えることや書くことで彼は疲れてしまった


句 phrase

文の要素だが主語も述部も存在しないもの
構造
  1. 前置詞句 ___ I found the book on the desk.
  2. 不定詞句 ___ I should like to read that book. (目的・理由・原因など)
  3. 動名詞句 ___ I do not like smoking in the hall.
  4. 分詞句 ___ Strictly speaking, this is not correct.
機能
  1. 名詞句 noun phrase ___ Writing a letter is my weak point.
  2. 形容詞句 adjective phrase ___ The man writing a letter is our teacher.
    名詞 → 形容詞句[限定] A stitch in time saves nine.
    S + V + C(形容詞句) [叙述] Quality is of greater value than quantity. → This is a book of greater value than that. [限定]
  3. 副詞句 adverb phrase ___ She was seated at the desk, writing a letter (or to write a letter).
原因・理由の句
on account of, because of, owing to, by reason of
He was obliged to leave school on account of (because of, owing to) his poverty.
He gave up his enterprise by reason of his illness.
目的・意図の句
for fear of + -ing = lest - (should)
He took off his shoes for fear of making any noise. = … for fear that he should make any noise.

名詞・名詞句 ⇒ 節 の関係

名詞・名詞句 → 節
S + V + one’s + 状態・性質を表すn ⇒ S + V + (that) + one be + n同族adj.

He denied his guilty. → He denied (that) he was guilty.

S + V + one’s + 動作を表す名詞 ⇒ S + V + (that) + one + n同族v.

I was informed of his failure in the attempt. → I was informed (that) he had failed in the attempt.

S + V + n. ⇒ S + V + (that) + S + n同族v.

He is sure of success. → He is sure (that) he will succeed.

S + V + one's + n. ⇒ S + V + 節 (疑問詞/感嘆詞 + one + v.)

None of the leaders realized the difficulty of the work. → None of the leaders realized how difficult the work was.

S + V + one's + n. ⇒ S + V + 節 (接続詞/疑問詞) + S + n同族v. + one

I ask Susan about the pronunciation of the word. → I ask Susan how you pronounce the word.

S + V + one's + n.n. + that + one + have

The scientist was proud of his knowledge. → The scientist was proud of the knowledge that he had.

主語 (subject)


We (I) found → 発見の興奮を伝え、その発見を誰がしたかが明瞭となる ⇒ 1人称が良い

It was found that等、読者に発見者を惑わす表現 (同様the author(s), the writer(s)避ける)

無生物主語

日本語にそのまま主語として訳すと不自然なこと多
  1. 条件 -によって
  2. 手段 -すれば。
  3. 原因・理由 -なので
  4. その他 (適当な訳)

Storms make oaks take deep root. 樫の木は幾度か嵐にあうので根が深くつく。
The problem caught general attention. その問題に誰も注意をひかれた。
Nothing will make him work; the mere idea of work makes him shudder.

形式主語

○ It is warm here. ここは暖かい。

× Here is warm. × This part is warm.

○ It is colder this morning than it was yesterday.

× This morning is colder than yesterday morning.

this morningは前置詞の目的語としてのみ名詞として使う。

Cf. It snowed heavily. = We had a heavy snow.
It takes long for ... to ~: It took long for the child to be found. It did not take long for new troubles to arise.

関係詞節が主語
関係代名詞

What is done s cannot be undone. してしまったことは、やり直せない。
Whatever you read is laid up in your mind. 君が読んだことは皆、君の頭に蓄えられる。

関係副詞 (稀)

Where he lives s is a long way off from the town.

疑問詞節

疑問代名詞で始まる疑問詞節が文の主語

Who said so s does not concern me. ⇒ Who said so? (主語疑問詞)
What he really means s is not understood. ⇒ What does he really mean? (目的語疑問詞)

疑問副詞で始まる疑問詞節が文の主語

When and where he was born s is a mystery. ⇒ When and where was he born?

→ Itを疑問詞節の代表として先行させる

It doesn't matter which he will choose.
If the counsel is good, it matters little who gave it.

一致の法則 (主語と動詞の呼応)

形は複数計の名詞だが動詞は単数
• 学問名、病気等

Mathematics is the subject that I hate most.
Mumps is a disease caused by virus.

• 時間・距離・金額等で意味するものが一つ

Four kilometers is a good distance for a walk.
Tow hours is enough to finish the repair.

• 分数の複数形

Three fourths of the earth surface is water.
Two thirds of the French public is against the US attack on Iraq. (個々人を強調) ↔

Two thirds of the French public is against the US attack on Iraq. (国というまとまりを意識)

複合の主語と動詞
• andで結ぶ主語が同一・相互不可分 - 単数

The poet an stateman is dead. 詩人かつ政治家が死んだ
Bread and butter is good. バターつきパンは良い

• andで結ばれる主語にevery, each, noが冠する時

Each boy and girl has a flag in his or her hand.
Every hour and every minutes is important.
No desk and no chair was brought in.

• andで結ぶ一方の主語が肯定、他方が否定 - 動詞は肯定主語に従う

I, and not he, am to go.
He, and not I, is to be chosen.

• andで結ぶ両方が不定詞 - 単数

To get up late and to be idle all day is his habit.

• 加算・乗算 - 単数・複数いずれでも可

Two from five leaves three.
Four divided by two makes two.

名詞 (noun)


(間投詞 interjection: 論文で使うこともなかろうと)

用法

主語 S + V ~ Ex. Language is a living thing.
補語 S + V + C / S + V + O + C

They called me a liar.

目的語: S + V + O / S + V + IO + DO

The noise woke the baby.
He told the children an amusing story.

前置詞の目的語 - 形容詞句・副詞句を作る

The girlwith blue eyes形容詞句 is Betty.


種類

可算名詞 = 普通名詞 + 集合名詞
不可算名詞 = 物質名詞 + 抽象名詞 + 固有名詞
⇒ 必ず辞書を引いて確認。不規則変化に注意するのはお約束。

datas are not available - datumの複数形がdataだけど、dataのさらなる複数形がdatasなのかしら
an excess zeros - どっちなの

人称・単数複数
気持ちは分かるが、修論・D論で主語は"I"にする。"We"では誰々が書いたの。主語を単数から複数とかに直すと、そこだけを直すとんでもな者がいるが、常識として、動詞の方も正しておいて欲しいものだ。

Thus, the elevational gradient that cause gradient in air temperature, growth period, wind intensity can be ...
博士終わってもこれだもんなー。せめて、Thus, the elevational gradient that causes gradients in air temperature, growth period and wind intensity can be ...だよね。[学位]...取り消すか。
Mean canopy radius of L. kaempferi that were ...
もういいよね。ちなみにradiusの複数形はradii
R. alba overstory provides the safe sites for M. japonica seedling emergence, and have no inhibitive effect on ...
節と節での人称や時制は合わせよう。
Principal stresses affecting seedling establishment changes seasonally ...
Seed-sowing experiment allow to exam all of them.
この位にしておこうかな。といった感じだけど、直さなかった(直せなかった)ところは正しいと思ってる人もいるようだし。ほっといたら、examもそのままなのかな。困ったものだ。

可算名詞 countable noun

普通名詞 common noun

複数形 plural form
  1. 単数 + 's'
  2. 's'音 (s, z, ch, sh, x) で終わる名詞 + 'es' (発音便宜上): 'es' 独立音節 Ex. one church, two churches; one box, two boxes.
  3. 特別複数形(個別に覚えるしかない)
    (a) 古英語が残る Ex. men (man), feet (foot) women (women), teeth (tooth), feet (foot), children (child), mice (mouse), people (person)
    (b) ラテン・ギリシア語起源(科学用語に多) Ex. stimulus (pl. –li), phenomenon (pl. –na), axis (pl. –es)

    ネイティブも間違い易い Ex. nucleus → 現在ではnucleuses, nuclei両方使用可

  4. 子音 + 'y' → 'y'を'i'にかえ、'es'をつけ、複数を作る。Ex. city, cities; lady, ladies
    母音 + 'y'は's'のみ Ex. boys, days, keys, toys (無音母音のあるmonkey, valleyも's')
  5. 'f'/'fe' → 'f'を'v'に変え、's'/'es'をつける。 Ex. leaf, leaves; wife, wives
    (例外の)例外: roof, safe (金庫), chiefは's'
  6. 語尾’o’の複数形: 単に’s’(米語傾向) - 少数の英語’es’ Ex. potato, potatoes; tomato, tomatoes
    古英語起源 Ex. potato, tomato → potatoes, tomatoesと'es'で複数形
    仏・伊・西語起源(音楽関係多): solo, cello, piano → solos, cellos, pianosと's'で複数形

    ⇒ 米語: 複数形の綴りを's'にまとめる動き Ex. cargo, heroは両方の綴りが見られる

    「子音+o」で終わる名詞は「oes」もあるが、radio等「母音+o」で終わる名詞は全て's'
  7. 単数・複数同形(単複同型)
    deer, sheep, fish, squid, moose, salmon, Japanese (群れる生物)
    speciesは要注意
    three dominat species in the post-mined peatland (Rhynchospora alba, Moliniopsis japonica, Phragmites australis) was used for ...
    主節が長くなると、そのうち主語がどれなのか分からなくなる。また、主節を短くした方が読みやすい。
  8. 注意
    a) 2つのplural formをとり意味が異なるもの

    formula: formulae = 数式 / formulas = 数式・処方, index (indices) = 指数 / indexes = 索引

    b) 単数複数で意味が異なる
    c) 単数形がない名詞: 対で使用するもの

    trousers (英), pants (米 = ズボン、英 = 下着), scissors, pliers (ペンチ), glasses (眼鏡)
    I bought some scissors. Please would you pass me the pliers.
    I bought a pair of trousers. He bought a pair of sunglasses

集合名詞 collective noun

単数は、全体を強調。複数は、構成員(物)を強調
This class is for foreign students. → The whole class were deeply impressed by his speech.
The audience was rather small. → The audience were excited by his speech.
[複数のみ] The police are investigating the case. There were several people on the street.

cattle, poultry, kindred

不可算名詞 (uncountable noun)

litter: 複数になると意味が違う(辞書を引いて欲しい)。業界用語では不加算名詞と思ってよい。

on the ground surface by shade of tussock litters
shadeも嫌だけど。

composition: 「構造」とか「組成」という意味では不加算、「構成物」という意味では可算名詞として扱う。

Litter accumulation greatly influences seedbank compositions by

tolerance

The tolerances of these seasonal stresses
これは、The tolerances to these seasonal stressesとしたとしてもseasonalって何なんでしょうね。tolerancesを辞書を引くと「公差」という意味では使うらしい。

固有名詞 proper noun

大文字で始まる + 冠詞(a/an, the)つけない(原則) + 複数形なし
  1. 人・国・街路・市・町名を単独で固有名詞として使う時は無冠詞
    I live in New York City on the corner of Broadway and 76th St.
    I heard that Mr. Smith was going to Russia, England, and France.
  2. これらの固有名詞が 他の名詞を修飾する形容詞となる - 冠詞つける
    Mexico has a warm climate. → The Mexican climate is warm.
    Chicago is a large city. → The Chicago fire was a large one.
  3. 固有名詞が、大河・海・山脈・国等の構成員(物)とし、それらを特定する機能もつ時、定冠詞必要
    The Mississippi River, the Ural Mountains, the Pacific Ocean, the United States, the Soviet Union, the Dominican Republic
最初の一文字を大文字にするのはお約束

Cambridge university pressはない。Hokkaido UniversityをHokkaido universityと書いているようなもので
Toyotomi townもToyotomi Townにして欲しい。ただし、the city of Sapporoのcityのcは小文字ね。
San diegoはSan Diegoでしょ。

逆もあったりして。

Appalachian sphagnum bogと書いてるが、Sphagnumは、属名なので頭文字は大文字にし、雑誌によるが、学名を普通はイタリックにしてAppalachian Sphagnum bogとするのが正しい

日付: 書き方は統一すべきでしょう

25 April 2006 vs September 17 2007
米国では日常はSept. 17, 2007と表記することが多いが、論文(公的文書)のときはそうでもないことがある(投稿規程に書いてあったりする)。

物質名詞 material noun

本質は複数要求(= 絶対複数形) ⇒ 常に単数形 + a/anはつけられない
Ex. air, helium, literature, news, notice, scenery, transportation, water
  1. 対で使う: scissors, spectacles, tongs, tweezers
  2. 理論上複数: a beam of protons, a group of crystals, data, distribution of eddy currents, X-rays
  3. 集合概念: contents, goods, suburbs
単複同形: 特に必要がない限り単数 Ex. apparatus, news, series, means (方法), works (工場)
群集名詞: 複数形で扱う Ex. mankind, The cattle are grazing.

抽象名詞 abstract noun

常に単数 + a/anつけない (不可算)
… にも~する have the (Abs.n.) to ~, be (Adjective) enough to ~

Will you have the goodness to lend me the book? = Will you be good enough to lend me the book?

… of + Abs. n. ⇒ 形容詞相当語句

it is no use (= useless) to me.

… with, in + Abs. n. ⇒ 副詞相当語句

She told the story in earnest (= earnestly).
He did it with care (= carefully).

不可算名詞 ⇔ 可算名詞

不可算名詞 ⇒ 可算名詞化
物質名詞 → 可算名詞化 (論文ではやらない)

種類を表すhe is good critic - of cheep wines
作(製)品・個々のものをさす how many papers do you takes? 新聞, Three coffees, please コーヒー3杯

固有名詞 → 可算名詞化

のような人 He is a Newton of our day.
という人 There is a Mr. Ito wants to see you.
という製品・特産 She bought a hover at supermarket.

不可算名詞 → 半可算名詞化
不可算名詞が複数はないが冠詞aをとる場合

knowledge 知識 → a good knowledge
memory 記憶 → a short memory

可算名詞 ⇒ 不可算名詞化
抽象名詞化(熟語多)

a school → go to school (学習), a church → go to church (礼拝), a bed → go to bed (就寝)

物質名詞化: a chicken → chicken (鶏 → 鶏の肉)
固有名詞化(無冠詞化)
a)人名による修飾: Ex. John's book. President Eisenhower's speech.
b) 所有代名詞による修飾: his hat, my book
c) その他

Ex. uncle, father, mother = 家族・親族. Captain Smith, Professor Ogata = 職・称号. Next Sunday, last Saturday = 習慣. Contents, Introduction = 標準・掲示. Wayout 短縮を要する語句

純粋可算名詞(不可算表現)
Ex. tube → tubing, machine → machinery, act → action (1回の行動 = actのこともある)
純粋不可算名詞(可算表現)
Ex. information → a bit of information, equipment, knowledge, evidence, advice, encouragement, assistance, help, health, dependence, precipitation

代名詞 (pronoun)


人称代名詞 (personal pronoun)

人称代名詞の並べ方: 2 - 3 - 1 (人称)
You, he and I went there.
Itの(特別)用法
天候・時間・距離・状況等 (sg. it - pl. they, them)

It is a sunny day.
It seems that he has caught cold.

形式主語・目的語

IS foundV itO hardC to walk in the deep snowreal O.
It ... that: 強調構文 → 論文英語では多用避ける

所有代名詞 (possessive pronoun)
それだけで主語、補語、目的語となれる Ex. These tools are his, not mine.
再帰代名詞 (reflexive pronoun)
He killed him. [he ≠ him] ⇔ He killed himself. [he = himself]

指示代名詞 (demonstrative pronoun)

this(these)/that(those)
so, such, the same

不定代名詞 (indefinite pronoun)

one/ones
another/other(s)

I don't like these ties.
Show me others (↔ Show me another.) × Show me other.

each
either/neither
both
all ↔ none
every (adj.)
some/any
everybody, someday
複合不定代名詞
some-, any-, no-, every-
原則単数

疑問代名詞 (interrogative pronoun)

= who (whose, whom), what, which, etc.
疑問代名詞 + to不定詞: -すべきか

I don't know what to answer.
I am at a loss when and how to begin and where to end.
I can't decide whether to go or not.

慣用構文
what about: -はどんな様子か、-はいかが

What about playing golf tomorrow?

what if: 1) -としたらどうしようか、2) -としても何のことはない (what though)

What if my father should not consent?
What if you fail this time? What though we are poor?

I'll tell you what (it is). 実は、あのね(いい話がある)

I'll tell you what (it is). I'm going to marry next month.

指示代名詞 demonstrative pronoun

this (these), that (those)

冠詞 (article)


形容詞の1種
ということで、冠詞は永遠に謎になるのだが。少なくとも、受験英語の常識位は、ねー。なんんために、中学・高校(・そして大学)と英語をやってきたんだか。

a hierarchical bayesian model ↔ an HBM (発音すれば分かる)
same → the same (ほぼ確実にtheがいる)

語感三態
Tigers are dangerous animals.
何頭かの虎が恐ろしい目をして現れる。複数形は、やはり複数を連想しa tigerより危険性がリアルになる。原則、複数形で一般を表す表現は最も日常会話的。日常的フィーリングを持つ表現

rain in Spain: 最も一般的表現: Rain tends to fall only very lightly in south central Spain.

A tiger is a dangerous animal.
1頭の虎が(世界の全て虎を代表し)恐ろしい目をして現れて来る。”a tiger”は、世界に数多くいる虎(複数)の中の1頭という意味。不定冠詞だから、どの一頭か特定せず、一応代表となる一頭である

a rain in Spain: ある種の一例: There was a nice, soft rain last night.

The tiger is a dangerous animal.
動物図鑑等での虎の挿絵の説明に最適。定冠詞で一般を表す表現は、改まった感じ、書き言葉的。講義・説教で頻繁に使う。日常会話では、少々硬い

the rain in Spain: 他と違うものとして限定: The rain in England has been rather colder, but the rain in Spain was unexpectedly warm.

不可算(物質・抽象)名詞の冠詞
(1) 名詞がある不特定の量または質を示すとき、冠詞は使わない

Gold is an important metal. Honesty is always the best policy.

(2) 特定の量または質を示すとき、冠詞"the"が先行する

The gold in this ring is very old. The honesty of Mr. Smith is above question.

定冠詞 the (that)

  1. 一度話題となった
  2. 種類一般
  3. 抽象名詞
  4. 序数に
  5. 特定固有名詞に
⇒ 限定

不定冠詞 a, an (one)

  1. 1つ
  2. 種類一般
    A dog is a faithful animal. (どの犬も …) → The dog is … と置いてもよい
  3. ~につき, ~毎に
    some, aboutとして数詞の前に添える Ex. a fine years, a sixty miles, Butter is \380 a pound.
  4. 普通名詞化した物質名詞・抽象名詞に
    固有名詞の前
    1. 同名の場所・人がたくさんある場合 He is an American (an Englishman).
    2. 家族・宗教・党派の一員 He is a democrat (a Buddhist).
    3. 固有名詞が普通名詞に転用された場合 He owns two Van Goughs and a Picasso.
1) A book is on the table.
2) The book which I am reading is very interesting.

1) 不定冠詞がbookの前に使われ、特定の本を指さず一般的な本である
2) 特定の本を指定し、その前に定冠詞を付け他の全ての本から from all other books 区別する

(1) 定冠詞は、単数名詞と同様に複数名詞も修飾

The book which is on the table belongs to me.
The books which are on the table belong to me.

(2) 不定冠詞 (a or an)は複数では用いない

= 複数名詞を一般的に使う時、冠詞は使わない
There is a book on the table. (No particular book).
There are books on the table. (No particular books).
There are many books and several magazines on the table.

Temperature (温度)
結構、曲者
  1. at a low temperature - 低い温度では不定冠詞
  2. 日々の温度の平均変化では温度は限定されない → 冠詞不用
    the average daily change of temperatures - 限定された温度

    the distillation temperature was, the melting temperature was, the reaction temperature was

  3. water begins to boil at a temperature of 100°C – 習慣的にa
無冠詞
冠詞を付けない場合: In Japan school starts in April.

動詞 (verb)


= be動詞 (be verb) + 一般動詞 (general verb) + 助動詞 (auxiliary verb)

法 mode

= 動詞の形態
直説法: 確実と思って述べる
仮定法: 確実ではないと思って述べる
命令法: 他人に対する禁止・命令

動詞 verb

自動詞: 目的語不要

完全自動詞: 補語不要 ⇒ (I) S + V
不完全自動詞: 補語必要 ⇒ (II) S + V + C

他動詞: 目的語必要

完全他動詞: 補語不要 ⇒ (III) S + V + O, (IV) S + V + IO + DO
不完全他動詞: 補語必要 ⇒ (V) S + V + O + C

自動詞 (intransitive verb, vi)

目的語ない → 受身形有り得ない
⇒ 自動詞は受身にできない(できるわけがない)(子供の参考書より)

誤: Plot cover and litter depth were differed between sites

なぜ受身。さらに、sitesって何。depthはthicknessが正しいはず。

誤: P. australis were appeared only in open habitats

主語は単数だし、appearは自動詞だし

例外: vi + prep. (prep.はそのままの位置)

They laughed at me for that. → I was laughed at for that.
A car ran over a dog. → A dog was run over by a car.

distributeは受身でしか使わないと思っておいてよい
不完全自動詞
1) Sの状態 (be)

be, seem, stay, keep, smell, feel, sound, read, remain, number, measure, weigh, look, coincide

2) Sの変化 (become)

become, grow, go, turn, get, fell, prove

通常受身としない動詞: belong, prove. be concerned withの形でconcernは用いる

進行形を作れない動詞
a) 知覚: see, hear, smell, feel, taste
b) 心理: like, love, hate, wish, hope, forget
c) 状態: consist, belong, depend, resemble
d) be, have, seem, appear, remain, process
例外 He is being cheerful today. いつもと違って...(一時的状態)。I am always forgetting dates. 動作反復

他動詞 transitive verb (vt)

invade (vt)

Woody plants can invade bare areas. × Woody plants can invade to bare areas.

自動詞と他動詞

vivt
sit (座る) ↔ seat (座らせる), set (据える)
fall (倒れる) ↔ fell (倒す)
rise (上がる/起きる) ↔ raise (上げる), rouse (起こす)
lie (横たわる) ↔ lay (横たえる)

誤りやすい自動詞・他動詞
aim (vi, vt): 狙う

vi. He aims at the target with a gun. (aim at: 着眼する、目的とする)
vt. A burglar aimed his pistol at the master. (武器を-に向ける)

appear (vi)

each pit appearing on the crystal surface

mess (vi, vt):

vi. 食事する(together)
vt. 1) (仕事・計画など)を台無しにする, 目茶目茶にする(up). 2) (部屋など)を散らかす (up).


動詞の書き換え
動詞を動詞句に書き換える時、分の構造(単文・重文・複文)は書き換えない(谷口 1977)
__動詞 ⇒ 動詞句
1. S + V + O ⇒ S + be + adj. + prep. + O

a) I doubt his success. ⇒ I am doubtful of his success.
b) Success depends upon a single moment. ⇒ Success is dependent upon a single moment.
c) The case distressed me. ⇒ The case was distressing to me.

2. S + V ⇒ S + have + v.同形n.

a) He talked with her. ⇒ He had a talk with her.
b) He kicked at the dog. ⇒ He gave a kick at the dog.

3. S + V + (+O) ⇒ S + be + v.-er + (+ of + O)

a) He speaks English well. ⇒ He is a good speaker of English (or good English speaker).

群動詞
(1) 動詞 + 前置詞 = 他動詞
look after, be ill of, look for
The children laughed at me. ↔ I was laughed at by the children. (受身) (2) 動詞 + 副詞 + 前置詞 = 他動詞
catch up with, look forward to, look down upon (= despite), keep up with
(3) 動詞 + 名詞 + 前置詞 = 他動詞
take care of, pay attention to, make use of

助動詞 (auxiliary verb)


  • be (am, is, are; was, were; been)
  • have (has; had)
  • do (do, does; did)
  • will (would), shall (should), can (could), may (might), must, need, dare (dared), ought to, used to
Can the report be true? → Is it possible that the report is true?
You shall go. ≈ I will let (or make) you go.(or I will send you.)
would
would rather ~ (than …) / would sooner ~ (than …) / would as soon ~ as ~: (···よりも)むしろ~したい [現在]

I would sooner stay at home than go out in the rain.
had better: ~する方がよい [現在] You had better go now before it is too late. (≈ would rather)

態 (voice)


能動態と受動態 active and passive voice (av. vs pv.)
av. We will give a dinner party on Monday. ⇔

pv. A dinner party will be given by us on Monday.

av. Everybody knows my name. ⇔ pv. My name is known to everybody.
av. They sell salt by the pound. ⇔ pv. Salt is sold by the pound (by us).

[主語 = 一般的人物 - 受動態で省略]

Cf. av. Somebody stole my watch. ⇔

pv. I had my watch stolen (by somebody). [have ≈ suffer]

Tom and Jane got engaged in August.
His house lies buried under snow. 助動詞はそのまま
I must do it. ⇔ It must be done by me.
完了形
I have just finished the work. ⇔ The work has just been finished (by me).
進行形
Father is writing a letter. ⇔ A letter is being written by father.
They are repairing your car. ⇔ Your car is being repaired (by them).
自動詞で受身の意味を持つもの
This close washes well. この布は洗いがきく
His books sell well. 彼の著書はよく売れる

種々の構文の受動態

平叙文
[S + V + O] ⇒ [S + V]
Bell invented the telephone in 1876. ⇔

The telephone was invented by Bell in 1876.

[S + V + IO + DO] ⇒ [S + V + O]
He gave his son a) a book b). ⇔

a) His son was given a book by him.
b) A book was given (to) his son by him.
受身のみ使用の決まり文句(能動態は使えるが不自然): 主に感情表わす

I am delighted to meet you. I am pleased to meet you. I'd be fascinated. I am interested in this book.
慣用的: made of (or from)*, known to, surprised at, covered with, interested in
* make: be made from = 原料が形を変えた製品, be made of: 材料がそのままの形
-からなる These bridges are made of steel.

[S + V + O + C] ⇒ [S + V + C]
We elected him captain of our team. ⇔

He was elected captaion of our team (by us).

疑問文
Did a car knock down the child? ⇔

Was the child knocked down by a car?

Can a child understand such a thing? ⇔

Can such a thing be understood by a child?

特殊疑問文: 疑問視 =
主語: Who painted the portrait? ⇔

By whom was the portrait painted? (or Whom was the portrait painted by? 口語)

目的語: What did he say to you? ⇔

What was said to you by him? (稀)

補語: What do you call this flower in English? ⇔

What is this flower called in English (by you)?

疑問副詞: Where did you find this shell? ⇔

Where was this shell found (by you)?

命令文 (imperative sentence, 稀)
V + O ⇔ Let + O + be + pp.

Do it now. ↔ Let it be done now. (谷口 1977)

They say (think, know, find, report, etc.) that …
They say that she is over ninety. ⇒

It is said that she is over ninety. (形式主語)
She is said to be over ninety.

群動詞 (他動詞扱い)
They laughed at me. ⇔ I was laughed at by them.

The dog was run over by a car. I was spoken to by a stranger.

by以外の前置詞
The sound surprised me. ⇔ I was surprised at the sound.

Cf. I was surprised by a loud knock at the door.

be pleased/delighted with (at), be satisfied/contented with (at), be disappointed at (in, with, etc.), be ashamed of, be absorbed in, be annoyed with (at), be convinced of, be amused with (at), be interested in, be worried about, be opposed to

The mountains are covered with snow.
We were caught in a shower on our way home.
He was educated at Oxford University.
Most Japanese houses were built of wood.

[ 話法 ]

時制 (tense)


話法において重要
時間的関係: 述語(主に動詞)で言及する出来事 → 主に発話時点からみて現在・過去・未来のどれに当たるか

基本時制
現在形 present tense_____過去形 past tense__未来形 future tense
完了時制 perfect tense
現在完了 present per._____過去完了_________ 未来完了
現在完了進行形_________過去完了進行形____ 未来完了進行形
進行形 progressive
現在進行形 present pro.___過去進行形 past pro. 未来進行形

進行形 progressive
進行形 = "意識的"動作 → 進行形になることが少ない動詞がある

状態: be, seem, look, appear, differ, contain, etc.
知覚: see, hear, feel, smell, taste, etc.
心理: like, love, hate, fear, believe, forget, remember, etc.

時制の一致 sequence of tenses

I think he is sick. 私は彼が病気だと思う
I think he was sick. 私は彼が病気だったと思う
I thought he was sick. 私は彼が病気だと思った
I thought he had been sick. 私は彼が病気だったと思った
(1) 主節の動詞が過去
主節_______従属節
I know (that) he is busy.
I knew (that) he was busy.
主節_______従属節
I know (that) he was (has been) busy.
I knew (that) he had been busy.

主節のVが過去なら、従属節のVは過去か過去完了 (例外あり)

(2) 助動詞
(a) 過去形にする

will → would, shall → should, can → could, may → might

(b) そのまま

must (had to), would, should, could, might, ought to, need, had better

(3) 例外
真理・格言: We learned that the earth is round like a ball.
習慣・修正: He told me that he goes to bed at seven every night.
歴史上事実: We learned that World War II came to an end in 1945.
仮定法過去・過去完了: He talks/talked as if he knew everything.

完了形 perfect

完了・結果・経験・継続
He has bought a foreign-made car.

⇔ He bought a foreign-made car.

yet: 疑問文 もう(so far), 否定文 まだ … ない (now)
already: 疑問文 もう...か (thus early?), 否定文 もうすでに (by this time)
just now → 現在完了には使わない

準動詞 (verbal)


= 不定詞 + 分詞 + 動名詞
動詞の性質を残しつつ名詞、形容詞、副詞の働きをする

不定詞 (infinitive)

名詞、形容詞・副詞の働き - 述語動詞としては用いられない

動詞としての語形変化がある
Everyone likes to be respected.
He seems to be preparing tomorrow's lessons.
She seems to have been ill.

to不定詞
原形不定詞
= toのない不定詞
知覚動詞、使役動詞の時に用いられる Ex. Don't make me cry.
[S + V + O + 原形不定詞]

知覚動詞: I saw him come in.
使役動詞: He made me come against my will.

help: to不定詞、原形不定詞の両方とる

Would you help me (to) find my glasses?

分詞 (participle)

= 現在分詞 + 過去分詞

動名詞 (gerund)

不定詞 (infinitive)


不定詞の後には動詞の原型が来るのが約束なはず。

誤: To detected seed dry mass, ...
edはどう見ても…。こういうの、受身にするのか、edはずすのか迷う時があるから嫌だ。

(林 1977)

1) 名詞的用法
I would hate to miss the train.
a) 主語: to + 原形動詞 = It (形式主語) – to + 原形動詞 (真の主語) → 動名詞で置き換えられる場合多
To control oneself is difficult. → It is difficult to control oneself. / It would be difficult to control oneself.
To see is to believe.
b) 目的語 Ex. for + O + to-: Oが-すること[名詞的]、Oが-する(ための/に)[副詞的]
名詞: It is difficult for me to master English. → For me to master English is difficult.
副詞: This is just the book for you to read. He stepped aside for us to pass.
疑問詞 + to不定詞 「-べき」
how to, when to, where to, what to, which to, whom to, whether to

× why to

2) 副詞的用法
I am happy just to know she loves me.
「結果」
only to-: 結局は~するにすぎなかった

I gave him a piece of friendly advice only to displease him. … 結局は怒らせてしまった。

never to -: 決して~しないことになる

He went to Chile never to return. 彼はチリに行ったきり戻らなかった。

to one’s [grief/joy/cost, etc.]

To our grief the ship never returned. 悲しいが、その船は帰らなかった。
He found to his cost that it is dangerous to drive too fast. 彼があまりにも速く運転するのは危険であることを身にしみて知った。

独立用法: 成句となっている
to tell the truth, to be frank, to begin with, to be brief, to say nothing of, to make matters worse, etc.
3) 形容詞的用法
It is time to say good night.
「目的」
to -, in order to -, so as to -: -するために、-するように → 否定: (in order) not to -, so as not to –

注意: so ~ as to - → 結果
He went early so as to get a good seat. 彼は良い席を取るために早く行った。[目的]
He went so early as to get a good seat. 彼はとても早く出たので良い席をとれた。[結果]

「程度」
too ~ to -, too ~ not to -, too ~ for (person, obj.) to ~

He is too tired to work any longer. = He is so tired that he can not work any longer.
The situation is too complicated for me to understand.

enough ~ to –: 十分~なので-する

He is now strong enough to leave his bed. ≈ He is now so strong that he can leave his bed.

enough toの方が限定的で「~するに(足りる)だけ」というニュアンスの違いがある

He had enough money to pay for the drinks.

so ~ as to-: ~なので-する, -するほど~である

He was so curious as to open the box.
→ 多くの場合enough ~ to-と交換できる
注: so as to-とは違う

be to -
  1. 予定(-はずだ): Father is to arrive at London tomorrow morning.
  2. 義務(-べきだ): You are not to write a letter in red ink.
  3. 可能(-できる): Not a sound was to be heard in the house.
  4. 運命(-することになる): The poet was never to see his country again.
  5. 意図(-するつもりだ): If we are to get along well, we must understand each other better.
to begin with (まず始めに), strange to say (奇妙なことに)

To begin with, I should like to ask you a few questions.
Strange to say, no one has ever seen the master of this house.

名詞を修飾
He is not a man to do anything by halves. → He is not a man who does anything by halves.
I have nothing to do today except a few letters to write. → I have nothing that is to be done …
I have an appointment to see the dentist this afternoon. → I have an appointment that I should see …

時制

単純不定詞: to + 原形

He seems to be ill. = It seems that he is ill.

完了不定詞: to + have + 過去分詞

He seems to have been ill. = It seems that he was (has been) ill.

分詞 (participle)


現在分詞/過去分詞 ⇒ 名詞を修飾

現在分詞(進行形) → 名詞 A rollingstone gathers no moss.
過去分詞(受動態・完了形) → 名詞 A watchedpot never boils.

分詞 + 名詞
名詞 + 分詞(句)
分詞自身が修飾語を持つ場合と口調

A man continually complaining is never listened to.
A word spoken is an arrow let fly.

使えると便利だ

分詞構文 participial construction

時・理由・原因・条件・譲歩・付帯状況・結果等
分詞句 + 主節 ↔ 従節 + 主節 (主節と従節のSは同じ)

Not knowing what to say, he remained silent. ↔ As he did not know what to say, he remained silent.
Some books, not (being) read carefully, will do more harm than good. ↔ Some books, if they are not read carefully, will do more harm than good.
Having finished it, you may go. ↔ When you have finished it, you may go.

分詞句 + 主節 ↔ 従節 + 主節 (主節と従節のSは異なる)

Night coming on, we went home. ↔ As night came on, we went home.
The moon having risen, I opened the window. ↔ When the moon had risen, I opened the window.

独立分詞構文

分詞の意味上の主語(従属節の主語) ≠ 主節の主語
As my mother was ill, I looked after her. ⇒

My mohter being ill, I looked after her.

慣用的成句
generally (→ adj.) speaking: 一般的に言えば Ex. Generally speaking, girls can speak French better than boys.
judging from: -から判断すると Ex. Judging from his accent, he must be an American.
talking of: -の話といえば Ex. Talking of pictures, have you seen his recent works?
with + O + 分詞: 付帯状況
She stood on the deck, with her hair streaming in the wind.

動名詞 (gerund)


動名詞 = 動詞 + ing - 名詞・動詞2性質持つ ⇒ 主語・補語・目的語となる

Dying is as natural as living.

現在分詞と動名詞は紛らわしい

現在分詞: 次に来る名詞の動作や状態
動名詞: 次に来る名詞の用途・目的

時制

単純形 He is proud of being a graduate of Oxford.
完了形 He is proud of having graduated from Oxford.

目的語(O)

being + p.p.: -されること Ex. I don’t like being asked to make a speech.
insist on + ~ing: ~することを主張する、ぜい-するという Ex. The doctor insists on my sleeping enough.
on + ~ing: ~すると、するとたんに(as soon as)

On hearing the news (= as soon as he heard the news), he turned people.
Cf. I am aware of his having left the room. 彼は私が部屋を出たのを知っている

S + V (find) + O (it) + C + ~ing ⇒ be + adj (p.p.) + prep. + ~ing: ~することを … している

I found it pleasant walking along the beach. 浜辺を散歩することは気持ちがよい

特殊形
There is no + 動名詞 ≈ It is not possible (or impossible) to 不定詞
There is no accounting for tastes. ↔ It is impossible to account for tastes.
慣用句
of one’s own + -ing: 自分で-した He showed me a picture of his own painting.
feel like + -ing: -したい気がする I don’t feel like dining out his evening.
make a point of + -ing: 必ず-するように努める He makes a point of attending such meeting.
worth (while) + -ing: -する価値がある What is worth doing at all is worth doing well.
It is no use + -ing: -しても無駄だ It is no use crying over spilt milk.
can not help + ~ing (= can not but + 原形動詞): ~せざるをえない

I can't help pitying such a man. We cannot but admire his bravery.

動名詞だけを目的語にとる動詞
avoid, consider, deny, enjoy, escape, finish, imagine, mind, miss, practice, stop, suggest, repent, give up, keep on, put off, etc.
動名詞と不定詞の両方を目的語にとる動詞
意味は大きく変わらない: begin, start, continue, intend, neglect, like, love, hate
意味は大きく変わる: remeber, forget, try, etc.

I remember reading it in some book before. -覚えがある
Please remember to wake up at six tomorrow morning. - 思い出す(忘れずに-する)

不定詞だけを目的語にとる動詞
care, decide, hope (expect, wish, mean), offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, etc.

目的語 (object)


形式目的語 S + V + O (= it)[形式目的語] + O + to-: -することを … に(と)

We found it difficult to keep pace with our guide. × We found to keep pace with our guide difficult.
Don't take it into your head to kill two birds with one stone.

O = that節(that clause)
vt + that-clause: -ということを … する Ex. We noticed that the wind was increasing.
except that-clause: -ということを除いて Ex. I know nothing about him except that he is a player.
S + V + O (it) [= 形式目的語] + C + that-clause [真の目的語]

I think it proper that you should refuse his offer.

see (to it) that-clause: -するように取り計らう(注意する)、確かに-する

I will see (to it) that everything is ready.

take it for granted that-clause: -を当然のことと思う、もちろん-だと思う

Some people take it for granted that what is old is better than what is new.

be + adj. + that-clause: 目的語が名詞(動名詞)の場合には前置詞が入るがthat-clauseでは不要
be + adj.(感情) + that-clause: ~して、~したので-だ

We are all anxious that your should return. → We are all anxious for your return.

O = 関係詞節
what = that which, what (little) money = all the money that → I hesitated to say what I thought to be right. I gave the boy what (little) money I had with me.
when = the time when → He told me when he was least busy.
who(m)ever = anyone who(m) → You may go with who(m)ever you like.
where = the place (direction, etc.) where → He looked to where the sound came from.
whatever measures = any measure that → Take whatever measures you consider best.
O = 疑問詞節
疑問代名詞
I want to know who is to marry her.
It depends upon what occupation you will follow.
I am not sure (about) which is better.
I have no idea (as to) why he has been arrested.
疑問副詞
The teacher asked us where we had been.
Don't worry about how much you will be paid.
O = whether (if)節
S + V + (+O) + O (=whether -): (-に)~かどうかを … する

I s don't know v whether (if) you have grasped my idea o.
(s) Ask v him o whether (if) he is coming on Sunday o.

be + adj. (+ prep.) + whether -: ~かどうかを … している

He is doubtful (about) whether he can afford a car.

補語 (complement)


主格補語 (C)
名詞・代名詞の他に形容詞・分詞・動名詞・不定詞・形容詞句等がくる
準動詞・形容詞(句)

Ex. Most of them remained silent all the time. To read well is to become one with your author. This matter is of considerable importance.

名詞節

Ex. The most important thing is that you learn to observe accurately. The question is whether he is willing to work or not. What puzzled me most was how I should please the children. That is just what I want.

目的補語(O.C.)
句・節

Please make yourself at home.
We found grandfather in good health.
He has made me what I am. 私が今日あるのは彼のおかげです。
What has made Japan what it is? 何が現在の日本を作ったのか。(what it is = 今日の日本)

連結詞 (connective)


= 接続詞 conjunction + 関係詞 relative + 前置詞 preposition

接続詞 (conjunction)


1) 等位接続詞

and, but, or, etc.

Ex. You and I love memories. ≈ I and you love memories. ニュアンスの違い

or: 2つ以上の選択すべき語・句・節を同格的に結合
肯定・疑問文: または、あるいは、… か …か

動詞は近い方の主語に一致 Mr. Barker or Mr. Hillary is suitable for the position.
Which do you like better, apples or oranges? Will you be there or not? "Shall we go by bus or train?" "By bus." (比較 "Shall we go by bus or train?" - "No, let's take a taxi."
two or three miles, an inch or more
Rain or shine, I walk to school every day. 晴雨に関わらず、私は毎日歩いて学校に行く。

either (副詞)と用いて: … かまたは … か
3つ以上の選択に用い: … か … か … か (用法: 最後のor以外は省略可)

any Tom, (or) Dick, or Harry (トムでも, ディックでも, あるいはハリーでも) = だれでも = 猫も杓子も
Music or painting or reading will give you some peace of mind.

否定文で: … も … も(ない)

She doesn't smoke or drink. I have no brothers or sisters.

選択の意が弱まり数等の不正確なことを示し: … かそこら, … あたり

a mile or so ほぼ1マイル. there or thereabout(s) どこかその辺. for some reason or other 何らかの理由で. A day or two are needed. 一両日を要する. He is ill or something. 彼は病気か何かだ.

命令文等の後で用い: さもないと

Study hard, or (else) you'll fail. 一生懸命勉強しなさい、さもないと落第しますよ。
Don't be too long, or you'll miss the train. あまりぐずぐずしないように、でないと電車に遅れる。
They must have liked the hotel, or they wouldn't have stayed so long. 彼らは、そのホテルが気に入っていたのでなければ、あんなに長くは滞在しなかっただろう。

概してコンマの後で類義語(句)・説明語(句)を導いて: 即ち、言い換えれば

the culinary art, or the art of cookery 割烹術、即ち料理法.

訂正語(句)・コメント等を導いて: いや …, あるいは(むしろ)

He is rich, or (at least) he appears to be (rich). 彼は金持ちか、いや、(少なくとも)そう見える。
I've met him somewhere. Or have I? どこかで彼に会ったことがある、いや、そう(だった)かな。

2) 従位接続詞(従属接続詞)

that, whether, if, etc.
副詞節導く

時: when, while, as, until(till), before, after, since
原因・理由: because, since, as
条件: if, unless
譲歩: although (though), as
状態: as, as if (though)

A + as well as B = not only B but (also) A

He has money as well as power. = He has not only power but (also) money.

目的:
(a) so that A may (will, can) -, in order that A may -

so + adj/adv + that -: 非常に~なので-である ↔ not so + adj/adv + that - not …: … しないほど-ではない

We were so tired that we fell asleep soon. We were not so tired that we could not walk on.

such + (article) + adj + noun + that -: 非常に~なので-である

This is such a difficult book that very few can understand it.
= This is so difficult a book that very few can understand it.

such + be + noun + that -: -は非常なものなので~である

Such was storm that we could not go out.

… (,) so that ~ may/can/will/shall: ~できるように

Let's finish this work today so that we can have a holiday tomorrow.

…, so that + 直接法動詞 ~: …, それで~である

He has got well, so that he can now work.

主節 + lest + S + (should) + V = 主節 + so that + S + might not + V

They took refuge lest the flood should burst on them. = They took refuge so that the flood might (or should, would) not burst on them.
that/so that/in order that + S + may/can/will/shall ~: -するために、-できるように(口語はthat省略もある)

目的・意図を表す副詞節
Most people eat so that they may live, but a few seem to live that they may eat.
He gave up drinking in order that he might save money.

(b) lest A should -, for fear (that) A should -, in case A should (may) -

for fear (that) - (should), lest - (should): -しないように、-するといけないから → 否定的意味もつ接続詞。続く節はshould多 (should省略 → 原形動詞使う)

I fear lest I should fail.

in case - (should): 1) -するといけないから, 2) もし-した場合には

I hid the letter for fear (that) he (should) see it. = I hid the letter so that he should not see it.
Take your raincoat in case it (should) rain.

時:
(a) as soon as ≈ the moment (instant, minute), directly, immediately
(b) no sooner - than …, hardly - when …

as soon as + S + V + 節 = no sooner + 助動詞 + S + V + than + 節 = scarcely (hardly, or barely) + 助動詞 + S + V + 節 (受験的訳: –するやいなや)

As soon as he had seen (saw) a policeman, he ran away. = No sooner had he seen a policeman than he ran away.
As soon as he (had) stepped onto the platform, he was arrested. = Scarcely had he stepped onto the platform, he was arrested.

譲歩:
even if (though) -: たとえ-としても
whether - or …, whether - or not: -であろうと…なかろうと
unless 従節 + 主節 = If 否定詞 + 主節

Unless you work harder, you will never pass the examination. = If you do not work harder, you will never pass the examination.

従節 [(Al)though (Even if) + S + V + (any + n.)] + 主節

= 従節 [疑問詞 -ever + 語 + S + V] + 主節
Even if you (may) choose either (or any of them), it must be one once for all. = Whichever you (may) choose, it must be done once for all.
Although he makes any excuses, I don't believe him. = Whatever excuses he may make (makes), I don't believe him.
Though you are rich, you must work. = However rich you may be, you must work.

whatever = no matter what
however = no matter how
whoever = no matter who, etc.

while = whereas: -のに、-だけれども、ところが一方

While some people like summer, others prefer winter.
Whereas water is liquid, ice is solid.

範囲:
so (as) far as, so (as) long as (= while or if only)
主節 + but (that) + 直説法肯定節 = 主節 + if + 仮定法否定節

She would have fallen but (that) I caught her. = She would have fallen if I hadn't caught her.

as, like, the way, how: -のように、-のとおりに [様態]

Do in Rome as the Romans do.
The students read the poem like their teacher.
Use your knife and fork the way I do.
Spend your money how you please. Do it how you like.

主節 vs 従節
従節 [(Al)Though + S + be + C] + 主節 = 従節 [C + as (or though) + S + be] + 主節

Although he was tired, he did not give up his plan. = Tired as (or though) he was, he did not give up his plan.

接続詞代用語

Once (adv.) + S + V~ + 主節 → When once (or if once, as soon as)

Once the job is finished, we’ll have nothing to worry about. = When once (If once, As soon as) the job is finished, we’ll have nothing to worry about.

The + 比較級 + S + V~ + the + 比較級 + S + V~ → (According) As

The hotter it is, the harder you will find it to live here. = (According) As it is hotter, you will find it harder to live here.

The (very) moment + S + V + 主節 → As soon as + S + V + 主節

The (very) moment I left home, it began to rain. = As soon as I left home, it began to rain.

動詞(仮定法) + S + ~ + 主節 → If (or Though) + S + V(仮定法)~ + 主節

Had you not arrived in time, I might have been drowned. = If you had not arrived in time, I might have been drowned.

動詞(仮定法) + S + C + 主節 → No matter how (or What, etc.) + C + S + be, 主節

Be it ever so humble, home is home. = No matter how humble it may be, home is home.

動詞(命令法) + O + C + 主節 → No matter how (or What, etc.) + C + S + be + 主節

Let a man be ever so rich, he should not live an idle life. = No matter how rich a man may be, he should not live an idle life.

関係詞 (relative)


= 関係代名詞 + 関係副詞 + 関係形容詞

× post-mined site in our study where has been abandoned over 30 years shows ... (似たようなのが、他にもたくさん)

これら3種は、混同しない(なぜ混同するのか)。先行詞を確認すれば、こういう間違いは消せる。関係代名詞は、省略できると習うが、論文では省略しないと記憶してよい。
公式: 前置詞 + 関係代名詞 = 関係副詞
と考えると分かりやすいか。ただし、前者は固い英語らしくニュアンスは変わるらしい。

関係代名詞 relative pronoun

the fact that -: -という事実[同格] (fact, news, report, conclusion, knowledge, idea, belief, view, opinion, etc.)

The report came in that a riot broke out in Detroit.
We are all equal in this, that [thisと同格] we all have the twenty-four hours in the day.

the question whether -: -か(…どうか)という疑問 (doubt, etc.)

I did not answer to the question whether I love her or not.

限定用法
The book which (that) you lent me is very interesting.
Nothing is profitable which is dishonest.
All is well that ends well.
Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist that has ever lived.
I remember the day when I first attended his lecture. [day (time, age, etc.) + when: -する日(時・時代等)]
Let's find a place where we can have a quiet talk. [place (home, etc.) + where: -する所(家等)]
There is no good reason why we should fear the future. [reason + why: -する理由]
名詞 + 前置詞 + 関係詞
That is the house in which we used to live.
Is that the man to whom you have often referred?
Look at the high mountain the top of which (= whose top) is white with snow.
継続用法(非限定用法)
He lent me a book, which interested me very much. = He lent me a book, and it interested me very much.
I was about to reply, when he cut in. [-, when (= and then): -すると、そのとき(それから)-]
At last we found a poor inn, where we stayed all night. [-, where (= and there): -して、そこで~]
名詞 + 前置詞 + 関係詞
We came to a stream, over which there was no bridge.
He wrote many delightful books, some of which you will read when you are older.
who, what, which (関係代名詞)
be + adj. + that-clause [o]: -ということを…している

adj. = anxious, aware, careful, certain, confident, conscious, ignorant, sure, etc.
I was aware that he was poor.
= I was aware of his poverty.
= I was aware of his being poor.

be + adj.(感情) + that-clause: -して、-したので…だ

adj. = annoyed, disappointed, glad, pleased, sorry, surprised, etc.
We are all anxious that you should return.
= We are all anxious for your return.

as, but (疑似関係代名詞)
such (~) as …: …のような

Habits are easily formed – especially such as are bad.
I will send you such books as will interest you.

the same ~ as …: …と同じ(ような)~

He would after today never be the same man as he was before.

前文を受けるas: そしてそれは、~だが

He comes from the north, as we know from his accent.

文頭のas: ~のような、~だが

As is often the case with him, he has been late this morning.

but ≈ that - not 否定語 + but: -でないものはない
There is no tree but bears some fruit. 実のならない木はない
(There is) Nobody but loves his own country. 自国を愛さない人はいない

関係形容詞 relative adjective

whose, which

関係副詞 relative adverb

接続詞と副詞の働きを兼ねる

限定用法: where, when, why, how
継続用法: where, when

This is the village where he was born.
My house is far from where (= the place where) I work.
複合関係代名詞・複合関係副詞
what/who/which/when/wher(e)/how/ + ever = no matter what/who/which/when/where/how
it is no matter what/…/how の頭部省略

Whatever he says, the rumor is true. (= No matter what he says, …) 彼がどう言おうと噂は本当だ [副詞節]
Whatever he says is true. (= Anything that he says …) 彼の言うことはなんでも本当だ。[名詞節]

come what may = whatever may come

Come what may, we must stick to our post. 何が来ようと我々は自分の持ち場を離れてはならない

be it ever so ~ = however ~ it may be

Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home. どんなに貧しくても家に勝る場所はない

let a man be ever so ~ = however ~ a man may be

Let a man be ever so rich, he ought not to be proud. (人は)どんなに金持ちでも得意になってはいけない

[ 用法 ]

前置詞 (preposition)


今更だけど、前置詞って何。前置詞とは、名詞の前に置く言葉。常に「前置詞」 + 「名詞(あるいは名詞相当の言葉)の形で表れる。

In totally, ... / In concluding, ... というのはありえない。

(当然だけど)前置詞が変わると意味が変わるので、十分に確認して欲しいものだ。
それ以前

On S. virgaurea showed low cover in post-mined site, ...
関係代名詞の部分に書くべきか。ともあれ、主語がない。Onをとるのか、あるいは、showedの前にthatが入るのか、分からない。関係代名詞は省略しないのが論文のお約束だし。

形容詞句
限定用法: The dictoinary on the desk is mine. [名詞の後]
叙述用法

主格補語: This dictionary is of great use.
目的格補語: I found it of no help.

副詞句
動詞・形容詞・副詞を修飾
よくある公式: 前置詞 + 名詞 = 副詞
以下の形は言い換え可 - どちらでもいい場合もあるということ(流れでどちらが適切かは決まる)

In general = Generally / In particular = Particularly / In short = Shortly

もしかして、totalとかgeneralとかが形容詞だと思ってるのだろうか(むしろ、そう考えた方がよいという説もあるけど、それは意味不明な文章への道となる)。ただし、意味が違うのが、(自分がよく使う) in total ≠ totallyということで。
先行動詞・形容詞と一緒に熟語のように知れば語順も覚えられる
Ex. 同じ、似る (same, similar, identical) ⇒ same as: 同じく, similar to: 似る, identical to or with: 全く同じ A was identical with B in biological reaction. The method used here was identical to that used by A.
群前置詞
(1) 前 prep. + 名 noun + 前 prep. (句)

by means of
for the sake of -のために

They are ready to fight for the sake of their country.

for the purpose of/with a view to/with a (the) view of + -ing or noun: -するために、-するように

He went to France for the purpose of studying chemistry.

in spite of
in case of
in front of

(2) 2語からなる (句)

because of
due (owing) to, according to

形容


[ 形容詞 | 形容詞と副詞 | 形容詞的用法 ]
形態分類学でよく使う形容詞
[ 形態 || 味覚・臭覚 ]

dissolved pots = 分解されたポット(既に分解してる) → degradable pots = 分解性ポット(これから分解する)

形容詞 (adjective)


(主として)名詞を修飾。つまり名詞の状態を説明する。じゃ、副詞は。

Ex: great difference, extra-ordinal sex ratio

限定用法 attributive use
形容詞を並べる順序(原則だから …)

1. 冠詞や人称代名詞・名詞の所有格 - 2. 数量 - 3. 主観的な判断 -
4. 大小 - 5. 新旧(齢) - 6. 色 - 7. 材料や出所

だが、これ全部並べたら、日本語だってうるさかろ。英語だって同じ。
述語用法 predicative use
= 補語 SheS remainedV silentC all the time.

性質形容詞

数量形容詞

不定数量形容詞 many, much, some, any, etc.
数詞

基数詞 one, two, three, …
序数詞 first, second, thrid, …

語順
Streptomycin and five other antibodies were ~
~ after two more hours incubation ...
This is the same watch that I lost. この時計は私のなくしたその時計である
This is the same watch as I lost. この時計は私のなくしたのと同じの時計である
数量関係
可算 ↔ 不可算

few: 少ない (殆どない) ↔ little: 少ない (殆どない)
a few: 少しはある ↔ a little: 少しはある
not a few = many ↔ not a little = much

one < a few < several < many

a few ⇔ none, several ⇔ one, many ⇔ few
much of 大いに > anything of 少しは > little of あまり~ない > something of 幾らか(幾分)~ > nothing of 少しも~ない

Cf. a lot of, a large number of, a great deal of, plenty of

not the least: 少なからぬ、かなりの(非常な) ...
not in the least: 少しも~でない ≈ not at all

There was not the least danger before us.
This book is not in the least interesting to me.

no small = great (Ex. His death is no small loss to the literary world.)
little (特に文頭で) = not at all (Ex. Little did we expect him to resign.) times, fold - volume (dilution)
times: 仕事を何回かrepeatする時
fold: 数量を何倍かにする時 or 何倍かに薄める時
volume: 何倍かの量の液体を加えるとき

~ and the cells were extracted five times.
The compound was added four times, in 3-hour intervals, to ~
The final fraction represented about a 130-fold purification with ca 30% recovery.
The filtrate was diluted 3-fold with water ~
The 1 ml of the supernatant, 3 volumes of ethanol was added.
ATN: This compound inhibited the growth of ~ in 1:25000 dilutions.

cm2: square centimeter, mm3: cubic millimeter, cm-1: reciprocal centimeter

代名形容詞

their, this, each, every, all, etc.
each: 各々, every: どれも → どちらも多数のうち1つをさし、常に単数扱い

Each student (Each of the students) has a book. 生徒はめいめいが1冊ずつ本を持っている
Every student (Every one of the students) has a book. どの生徒も一人残らず1冊ずつ本を持っている

しつこく習うはずだけど、eachの後は単数だよねー。悲しい位、間違えてる。

In the each large plot, I set up 25 small plots (0.8 × 0.8m) with spacing 1m between the each small plots.
なんで、前は正しいのに、後ろは間違えるんだか、理由が知りたい。ついでながら、1mは1_m

every (比較なし)
可算単数名詞を伴い無冠詞(冠詞は用いないが所有格代名詞は用いられる)
どの…もみな, ことごとくの, すべての

多くのものについて個々に見てこれを総括する → all や個別的な each より意味強い
I looked in every room. どの部屋もことごとくのぞき込んだ [!] every … → 単数構文 ↔ all … 複数構文 Ex. I looked in all the rooms.
Every word of it is false. その一語一語ことごとく偽りだ.
I've lost every other umbrella but this one この傘以外すべての傘をなくしてしまった
→ しばしば副詞句として用いる

every day [week, year] 毎日 [週, 年].
every day [week, year] or two 1, 2日 [週, 年]ごとに.
every mornin [afternoon, night] 毎朝 [午後, 晩].
at every step 一歩ごとに.

→ [後に"序数+単数名詞"または"基数(または few など) + 複数名詞"] … おきに, … ごとに

every second week 1週間おきに.
every fifth day = every five days 5日ごとに, 4日おきに
every few days [years] 数日 [数年]ごとに
Every third person has a car. 3人にひとりは車を持っている
In the United States there is a census every ten years. 米国では10年ごとに人口調査がある
He picked up every last bean on the floor. 彼は床にあった豆を一つ残さず拾った
every now and then [again] = every once in a while [way] 時々, 時折
in every other line 1行おきに every other day 隔日(に), 1日おきに

[not を伴って部分否定] → ことごとく … とは限らない

Not every man can be an artist. だれでも芸術家になれるものとは限らない.

[抽象名詞を伴って] 可能な限りの, あらゆる, 十分な

He showed me every kindness. 彼は私にほんとにいろいろ親切にしてくれた.
I have every confidence in him. 私は彼に全幅の信頼を寄せている.
I have every reason to believe (that) he's innocent. 彼が無実であると信じる理由が私には十分ある.

none: 複数が多い(語源no one - 単数)

None of my friends come (comes) to see me. 不可算名詞なら単数: None of this money is yours.

副詞 (adverb)


単純副詞

形容詞は名詞にかかるし、副詞は…。辞書引いてない証拠だよなー、こういう間違いは。
The number of seedlings was not significant different between centers and flats.
In two dense vegetated sites, the seedbank in litter
これは形容詞にかかるなら副詞にする。
... and seasonally fluctuations of seed density were ...
これは名詞にかかるので形容詞にする。
R. alba seedlings showed significant high growth
明らかに同じ人間の3回目の書き直しの文より。
日本語でも起こりうる不明瞭な文章が以下の例。形容詞・副詞は、これに注意する必要が常にある。
… introduced herbs and trees …
これは、introducedがherbsだけにかかるのか、herbs and treesにかかるのかが分からない。直訳すると、「導入草本と木本植物」なので、「導入された草本と(導入された)木本植物」の括弧の中が省略された文章なのかどうかは不明となり、2つの解釈ができる。前者の意味で使いたければ、暫定解決策は、
introduced-herbs and treesとして導入草本を1単語にしてしまうか、
trees and introduced herbsとしてintroducedをtreesにかからない工夫。

時・場所: 小さい単位から順に / 時と場所では場所が先

very vs much
very: 形容詞・副詞の原級を修飾 ⇔

He speaks English verywell.

much: ① 動詞を修飾。② 形容詞・副詞の比較級・最上級を強める

① I do not like this research much.
② This is muchbetter than that.

very: 現在分詞・過去分詞から形容詞になった語を修飾 ⇔

The news was verysurprising.
I am verytired after a long monitoring.

much: 過去分詞を修飾

This picture is muchadmired.

already vs yet
already = もう [-した] 肯定文 ⇔ yet = もう [-したか] 疑問文

She had already left when I got there.
Have you done your measurement yet?

still = まだ [-である(か?)] 継続 ⇔ yet = まだ [-していない(か?)] 未完了

He is stil in bed.___Is he still single?
He has not yet got up.

ago vs before
① - ago 今から-前; - before その時(過去のある時)から-前

I saw him a week ago.
I had seen him a week before.

② × ago単独; 〇 before 以前に

I never visited the site before. (× ago)

間接疑問 I wonder how much is the fare is.
修辞疑問 How can I forget it?

疑問副詞 interrogative adverb

why, where, when, how

× How do you think of this picture?
〇 What do you think of this picture?

関係副詞 relative adverb

why, where, when, how

比較 (comparison)


⇒ 形容詞・副詞: 大部分は-er, -est / more, mostをつけ比較級・最上級を作る

1. 原級 (positive)

as - as …: …と同じ位-だ He is as intelligent as you (are).
as much (many) as: -と同じだけの程度(分量・数) You may take as many books as you like.
as much (many): 同量(同数) I thought as much. 大体その程度のことと思った。 I made five mistakes in as many lines. 私は5行のうちに5つの誤りをした
as (like) so many: さながら-のように The girls were dancing like so many butterflies.
so much (many): → 具体的数量を言わない
These men work so many hours for so much money. この人達は金がいくらで、いく時間で働く
as ~ as any: 世にも稀な~、かつてない~ He is as great a statesman as any.
as - as ever = the + 最上級 + that ever = as (関係代名詞) + ever + V: 世にも稀な~、かつてない~
as + adj. + as ever: あいかわらず- He is as poor as ever.
more than ever: 従来より更に He hated mathematics more than ever.
as - as can be: ありえるだけ → 大変~ (exceedingly) as safe as anything すごく安全な
as good as -: -と同じ He is as good as dead. 死人状態だった cf. as busy as bee
not so (or as) - as … … ほど~でない
not so much A as B = not A so much as B: AよりはむしろB
not so much as -: -すらない He did not so much as say goodbye to us.
without so much as -: -すらなし(せず)に He went away without so much as saying goodbye to us.
as far as, so far as, in so far as (insofar as): -する限りでは / as (so) far as: -まで(も) [距離・程度]

So far as I know, he has nothing to do with the matter.
He went so far as to say that it was a scandal.

as (so) long as: -する限り、-するなら [制限・条件]

As long as we live, we have something to do. So long as you apologize I am satisfied.

否定語 + so (or as) - as …: …ほど-なものはない (最上級否定文と同意)

No book is so interesting as this. = This is the most interesting book. = No book is more interesting than this.
There is nothing so interesting as history.

2. 比較級 (comparative)

[重要] 比較されるものは必ず同じ種類のもの
○ His monthly salary is higher than that of a Prime Minister.
× His monthly salary is higher than a Prime Minister.
no more X than Y = not X any more than Y: XでないのはちょうどYでないのと同じ

A whale is no more a fish than a horse is. = A whale is not a fish any more than a horse is.

not more X than Y: YほどXではない ⇒ more thanをnotで否定しただけ → no more X than Yと混同しない

He is not more industrious than you (are). = He is less industrious than you (are). 彼は君ほど勤勉でない。
↔ He is no more industrious than you. = He is not industrious any more than you. 彼は君と同じく勤勉でない。

まとめると:
no more than = only, as few (little) as

This dictionary contains no more than 20000 words. この辞書には2万語しかない。

not more than = at most

This dictionary contains not more than 20000 words. この辞書には(多くても)2万語以上はない。

no less than = as many (much) as

This dictionary contains no less than 20000 words. この辞書には20000語もある。

not less than = at least

This dictionary contains not less than 20000 words. この辞書には少なくとも20000語ある。

much (still) more [肯定的] まして、いわんや-である ↔ much (still )less [否定的] まして、いわんや~ない

Every one has a right to enjoy his liberty, still more his life. 人は皆、自由を享ける権利があり、まして、自分の生命はなおさらである。
It is not wise to live on today's income and much less on that of tomorrow. 今日の収入で生活することは件名ではなく、まして明日の収入を当てにするのはなおさらである。
still more ≈ to say nothing of, not to speak of

He knows Latin and Greek, much more modern languages.
He knows Latin and Greek, to say nothing of modern languages.

否定語 + 比較級 + than -: -ほど…なものはない

Nothing is more precious than time, yet nothing is less valued (普通省略 than time). 時間ほど貴重なものはないが、それほど重んじられないものもない。

= Nothing is so precious as time, … = Time is the most precious thing of all, …

There is no human possession more valuable than friendship.

No book is more amusing than this.
= No book is so amusing as this. = This is the most amusing book of all.

Nowhere (副詞) on earth can there be found a greater spectacle than this.

= Nowhere on earth can there be found so great a spectacle as this.
= This is the greatest spectacle that can (ever) be found on earth.

the + 比較級 [従節], the + 比較級 [主節]: ~すればするほど、ますます…する

The higher the ape goes, the more he shows tail. 猿は高く登れば登るだけ、ますます尻尾を見せる。
according as ~: ~するにつれて、~に応じて

According as (In proportion as) the demand increases, prices go up.

(all) the + 比較級 for 名詞(相当語句) / (all) the better (more, etc.), because (as) S + V

~のために(~であるから)、いっそう(かえって)…
We enjoyed our meal all the more because we were all hungry.

[none the less / not … the less] for ~ / because ~ / as ~: ~からといって…に変わりはない。~だがやはり…する

He has some faults, but I love him because none the less.
I don't love him the less because he has some faults. 彼に幾らか欠陥があっても、好きなことに代わりはない。

more often than not 大抵、しばしば(≈ very often) More often than not he comes late for a date. 奴は大抵遅刻だ。
more than all とりわけ Cf. more than ready 待ちくたびれた
prefer A to B: BよりAを好む (thanよりtoを用いるのが普通)

He preferred walking to riding. [例外: to不定詞ではthanが普通 He preferred to walk rather than to ride.]

3. 最上級 (superlative)

[重要] 形容詞 → 必ず the … ⇔ 副詞 → (the)
at (the) 最上級 at (the) most せいぜい(いくら多くても), at (the) least 少なくとも

A man lives with a few familiar ideas, two or three at most.

Joke Two old classmates met for the first time in years. "So you've gotten yourself married," marveled one. "I remember when you swore you wouldn't marry the best man in the world." "Well," answered the other, "I didn't." → 1. 私は、あなたが世の中で最も良い男とでさえ結婚しないと誓った時を覚えているわ。2. 私は、あなたが世の中で最も良い男とは結婚しないと誓った時を覚えているわ。(話者は1のつもり、聞き手は2のつもり)

最上級の強調に用いられる熟語: under the sun, in the world, on the globe, etc.

形容詞的用法


名詞

名詞の形容詞化
名詞に-edをつけて形容詞として使用 landed, winged, seeded
形容詞的用法
名詞の複数形は形容詞的用法はできない。便利な用法なので知っておくのはよいが、それに相当する形容詞があれば、それを使うべき。例外もあるが

detecting the processes of plants establishment after disturbance is important
succession sere
 これは、successional sereが正しいだろう

誤解を呼ぶ書き方
stem number(s): 「幹の番号」と「幹の数」という意味の両方の解釈が可能
→ なので、木の数と言いたいのならnumber(s) of stemsとする

数字

数字は正確さに貢献する
文頭の数字は単語で書く。1-9 (or 12)までは単語で書く (雑誌によっては数字となりつつある)
基数
数を表すもとになる数。十進法では1から9までの整数
序数
物事の順序を示す数詞。「第1」「2番目」等
⇒ 基数・序数はハイフンで繋がれるべき

基数: twenty-one, 序数: twenty-first, one-hundred-and-first

2つの数字を並べて書くときは数字だけ、単語だけで用いるべきではない

○ two 50 W lumps, × 2 50 W lumps, × two fifty watt lumps

小数桁数は有効数字に関係 = 慎重に! → 5, 5.0, 5.00は実験精度が異なる
0以上1以下の数字は小数点の前に0を置くべき → ○ 0.5, × .5

about, more, lessなどの語を小数とともに用いてはいけない

否定形 (negative form)


否定語 no, not, nothing, nowhere, never, none, few …

no/not

He is not a fool. 彼はバカではない ⇔ He is no fool. 彼はバカどころではない → 秀才だ

He is not an ordinary scholar. 彼は普通の学者ではない ⇔ He is no ordinary scholar (= an extraordinary scholar). 彼は非凡な学者である

"No good." 全然駄目だ(処置なし)
"(There were) no hard feelings." 悪く思うな
I don’t think I can. できそうもないね。 × I think I can not.
"Is that true?" I'm afraid so. (残念ながら)そうらしい / I'm afraid not. そうではないらしい
not any ≈ no

He did not learn anything from that book. ≈ He learned nothing from that book.

not half 半分ではない → 少しもない (= not at all)

"How do you like this wine?" "Not so (half) bad." このワインどうだい。いけるよ。

not in the same class with ~とは比べものにならない (≈ not equal to)

"He is not in the same class with you in chess?" "Not now. He gets the better of me."

no better than: ~に過ぎない、~も同然だ

not better than: ~よりは良くない、せいぜい~だ

He is no better than a beggar.

no less than: ~ほども
not less than: 少なくとも(at least)
To my surprise, he gave me no less than $500. I suppose that he has no less than $500.

not much of たいした~ではない

He was never much of a fellow for talking when young. My father was not much of a poet.

no end = immensely ひどく

Mother once had a bat down the chimney and was scared no end. 母は煙突からコウモリが落ちてきて、ひどく震え上がったことがある

My father's hobbies enclosed him in himself and got him nowhere. 私の父の趣味が彼を自分の世界に閉じ込め、うだつが上がらなかった。
neither A nor B: ABも~でない

You have neither killed her nor cured her. あなたは彼女を殺しも生かしもしなかった
Lockheed? Kotchain? Neither one of them means anything to me; that's neither here nor there.

ロッキード? コーチャン? 私にはどちらも何のことか分かりません。無関係のことであります

none [see, file "dict.mdb"]
nothing [see, file "dict.mdb"]
cannot (can never) ~ too (enough): どんなに~としてもしすぎることはない

We cannot value the sense of proportion too much.
I cannot thank you enough for your kind invitation.
It is impossible to overestimate the value of health.

部分否定

「全て、常に、全く」を表す語(all, every, both; always, necessarily, altogether, quite, completely, wholly, etc.)を否定
⇒ 部分否定: 全部が全部-とは限らない、必ずしも-ではない

It is not entirely new. それは全く新しいというわけではない
Well, it wasn't exactly cold, but it wasn't warm either. そう、必ずしも寒くはないが、暖かくもない
not ~ always (necessarily, quite): 常に~とは限らない
not every: 全てが~ではない
not both: 両方とも~というわけではない

二重否定

否定 + 否定  強い肯定 = Every ~
cannot (can never) … without ~ ing

You cannot read a good book without being the better for it. 良書を読めば必ず人はそれだけ向上する

there is no … but ~: ~しない…はない(butはthat not の意味の関係代名詞)

There is no one but knows such a simple matter.

no ~ but what …: ~で…でないものはない

No ill befalls us but what may be for our good.

no ~ so … that … not: …でないほど~なものはない → どんな~でも…である

No wound is so slight that it may not become fatal.

弱否定語(準否定語)

hardly, scarcely: 殆ど-ない

John hardly ever works hard.
It rained for two days with scarcely any pause.

seldom, rarely: 滅多に-ない

Rarely have I had a heavier heart than on that morning.
A sailor seldom returns to his ship without delight.

講義のために (for lectures)


シラバス (syllabus)


参考


  • 子供のオーストラリアで使ってた参考書: 実はすごく良い
  • 木村 明. 1967. 英文法精解 -改訂板-, 培風館 745 p. 高校時に愛用してたもの。今でも使うが...
  • 林 育男. 1977. ビートルズで英語を学ぼう. 講談社(Big Backs) 252 p.
  • 平野 進 (編). 1983. 技術英文のすべて(第6版). 丸善, 東京
  • 小林聰籌 (編). 2003. 英語ライティングハンドブック. TNU
  • 松川昇太郎. 1968. マイティ 英文解釈. 学研447 p.
  • 溝口歌子. 1976. ライフサイエンスの英語論文. 講談社サイエンティフィック 157 p.
  • Murphy R & Smalzer WR. 2002. Basic grammar in use. 2nd edn. (CD付). Cambridge University Press
  • 原田豊太郎. 2004. 間違いだらけの英語科学論文. 講談社Blue Backs
  • ピーターセン・マーク. 1988. 日本人の英語. 岩波新書
  • Swan, M. 2005. Practical English usage (3rd edn.). Oxford University Press, London
  • 谷口次郎 (監). 1977. 大学入試 英語書き換え問題の公式(増補版). 篠崎書林, 東京 167 p.
辞書
  • Hornby, A.S. (ed.). 1985. 現代英々辞典. 開拓社. 1036 p. 最新は2005年らしい. 英和辞典でニュアンスがとれないときに使う

ブラウザ仕様のためデザイン等は変更


博士課程地域生態系学講座入試問題(1996)

1. 次の文章を和訳しなさい。

1. STOP JUNK MAIL

The junk mail Americans Receive in one day could produce enough energy to heat 250,000 homes.
BACKGROUND. We don't usually think of junk mail as an environmental hazard - just a nuisance. But if you saved up all the unwanted paper you'll receive in the mail this Year, you'd have the equivalent of 1-1/2 trees. And so would each of your neighbors. And that adds up to about 100 million trees every year.
DID YOU KNOW
  • Americans receive almost 2 million tons of junk mail every year.
  • About 44% of the junk mail is never even opened or read.
  • Nonetheless, the average American still spends 8 full months of his or her life just opening junk mail.
  • Junk mail is made possible by U.S. Postal Service policies that enable bulk mailers to send presorted batches of mail for their minimum rate - 10 ¢ per piece.

  • If only 100,000 people stopped their junk mail, we could save about 150,000 trees every year. If a million people did, we could save some 1.5 million trees.
SIMPLE THINGS TO DO
  • Write to: Mail Preference Service, Direct Marketing Association, 11 West 42nd St. PO Box 3861, New York, NY 10163-3861.
    They'll stop your name from being sold to most large mailing list companies. This will reduce your junk mail up to 75%.
  • Recycle the junk mail you already get3 If it's printed on news print, toss it in with the newspapers. If it's quality paper, make a separate pile for it-many recycling centers accept both white and colored paper. Envelopes are recyclable, too - as long as they don't have plastic windows in them.
Packaging Mania: About 75% of America's glass is used for packaging.
2. 博士課程における研究計画を英文でまとめなさい。タイトルは25単語、概要は250単語位かそれ以下としなさい。(これらは普通の科学論文のタイトルとダブルスペースの原稿がA4で1枚分の要旨に対応します。)


博士課程 地域生態系学講座入試問題(1997)

1. 次の文章を和訳しなさい。
Ecological Economics
Ecological Economics and Sustainability
'Homo sapiens' is at another turning point in its relatively long and (so far) inordinately successful history. Our species' activities on the planet have now become of so large a scale that they are beginning to affect the ecological life-support system itself. The entire concept of economic growth (defined as increasing material consumption) must be rethought, especially as a solution to the growing host of interrelated social, economic, and environmental problems. What we need now is economic and social development (qualitative improvement without growth in consumption) and a direct and explicit recognition of the inter-elatedness and interdependence of all aspects of life on the planet. We need to move from an economics that ignores this interdependence to one that acknowledges and builds upon it-an economics that is fundamentally ecological in its basic view of the problems that now face our species at this crucial point in its history.
This new ecological economics is, in a very real sense, a return to the classical roots of economics. It is a return to a point when economics and the other sciences were integrated rather than academically isolated as they are now. Ecological economics is an attempt to transcend the narrow disciplinary boundaries that have grown up in the last 90 years in order to bring the full power of our intellectual capital to bear on the huge problems we now face.

The current dilemma of our species can be summarized in ecological terms as follows: Homo sapiens has moved from an early successional "empty world," where the emphasis and rewards were on rapid growth and expansion, cutthroat competition, and open waste cycles, to a maturing "full world," where the emphasis and rewards are on qualitative improvement of the linkages between components (development), cooperative alliances, and recycled “closed-loop" waste flows.
Can we recognize these fundamental changes and reorganize our society rapidly enough to avoid a catastrophic overshoot? Can we be humble enough to acknowledge the huge uncertainties involved and protect ourselves from their most dire consequences? Can we effectively develop policies to deal with the very tricky issues of wealth distribution, population control, global warming, international trade, and energy supply in a world where the simple palliative of "more growth" is no longer a solution? Can we modify our systems of governance at international, national, and local levels to be better adapted to these new and more difficult challenges? Homo sapiens has successfully adapted to huge challenges in the past. We developed agriculture as a response to the limits of hunting and gathering. We developed an industrial society to adapt to the potential of concentrated forms of fossil energy. Now the challenge is to live sustainably and well, but within the material limits of a finite planet. Humans have an ability to conceptualize their world and foresee the future that is more highly developed than any other species. We are hopeful that we (the species) can use this skill at conceptualization and forecasting to meet the new challenge of sustainability Ecological economics is an attempt to meet that challenge.
2. 博士課程に入学した際に計画している研究の目的、その(地球)環境科学的な意義と、具体的な方法について、英文で述べなさい(回答用紙片面程度)。

生物圏科学専攻 植物生態学コース・生物多様性科学コース

博士後期課程入試問題 (2007.2.28)

英語(English)

Attention: Do not open and see any dictionaries during this exam. Except for Question (3), you must answer in English.
(1) Each of the questions below is followed by several suggested answers. Select the one that is best in each case.
a. When we eat potato we are acting as
(A) producers (B) primary consumers (C) secondary consumers (D) decomposers
b. Which of the following best describes an intimate ecological interaction in which the organism is harmed when living on or within the host, but which generally has a negative effect on that host?
(A) mutualism (B) saprophytism (C) commensalism (D) parasitism (E) predation
c. Which ecological unit is defined as so to include abiotic factors?
(A) population (B) ecosystem (C) community (D) biome (E) deme
d. Which concept most completely describes the place that an organism is found in an ecosystem?
(A) habitat (B) niche (C) food web (D) chemical cycle
(2) Give the definition of the following terms.
a. Facilitation
b. Biological invasion
c. Reproductive strategy
(3) The following essay was written by an author who lived in Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan. After reading the sentences, answer the questions a to d.
Succession is influenced by many factors. We are studying a 20-hectare site that was homesteaded in 1884. At that time the forest was cleared. Stumps were grubbed from 10 hectares, but not from the other 10 hectares. The grubbed site was plowed and farmed for 10 years, the rest was grazed.

In 1894, the settler went to fight in the Sino-Japanese War and the farm was abandoned. However, it stayed in the family to this day, with no further major disturbance. Contrast the two 10-hectare sites in terms of their successional progress.
[Hint]
grub: clear by digging up roots and stumps.
homesteaded: acquire or settle on land under a homestead law. In the present case, the law of ex-legionary (屯田兵).
a. Translate the essay into Japanese. b. Which site will be closer to climax vegetation? Why?
c. Which site will have more introduced species? Why?
d. How would the location of the site affect the succession process? Would the results be altered if the site were located close to Sapporo rather than outside of Hokkaido, e.g., in Okinawa? Explain.
(4) What would be an excellent way to control weeds in each of the following cases, a-e. Select three cases, and answer the selected cases separately.
a. A field is infested with either groundsel (Senecio vulugaris L. ノボロギク) or Klamath weed (Hypericum perforatum L. セイヨウオトギリ).
b. A pasture is infested with Scot's broom (Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link, エニシダ).
c. A pasture is infested with Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense Scop., セイヨウトゲアザミ).
d. Lawn has a wide variety of undesirable rosette weeds.
e. A vacant lot is covered by an array of interesting and pleasing weeds.
(5) Write your research plan in doctoral course. The answers must describe: (a) Objectives and/or hypotheses, (b) Materials and methods to clarify the objectives and/or hypotheses, and (c) Expected results and the originality.

2005年 環境起学専攻試験問題

環境起学専攻・試験問題: 英語[英文和訳]
問1 次の英文(1)から(5)を全て日本語に訳しなさい。
(1) An international agreement to protect forests was not passed because of conflicting interests.
(2) In order to achieve the reduction commitment not only by industrial activities, the Kyoto Protocol, for the first time, considers also an enhancement of biological sinks.
(3) The forest definition (forests are stands with trees greater than 0.5 ha, 2 m in height and with 10% cover) does not protect against degradation (over-use) of forests.

(4) As areas required in developing countries are made available by clearing primary forests, this process is an emission and not a sink in the global carbon balance.
(5) A prediction of the effects of an increase in climate-effective trace gases (CO2, N2O, CH4 and others) is only possible using model calculations based on certain “scenarios” of their increase and by coupling land, ocean and atmosphere processes.
用語注: stand = 林分(ある程度の面積をもった、まとまりのある森林)

(引用: Schulze et al. 2005. Plant Ecology. Springer. 問題文は一部を改変し使用)


修士課程生態環境科学専攻入試問題(1998)

外国語(英語)
1. 以下の文章を読み問に答えよ。
Lichens are ubiquitous plants that occur in a variety of habitats. One finds these organisms on the bare surfaces of exposed desert rocks or on the frozen substrata of polar regions. Five species of lichens can survive a temperature of -198oC and that lichens can photosynthesize actively at -18.5oC in the Antarctic. Lichens _________________a (saxicolous-species) and _________________b (terricolous species), and _________________c (corticolous species). There are also reports of lichens growing on a number of unusual substrates, ranging from iron grave markers to the backs of large forest weevils.
A few species of lichens are submerged aquatics, both freshwater and marine, that are periodically exposed to the air, while others survive long periods of desiccation. Lichens can absorb water in both liquid and vapor form, and the absorption of water seems to be an entirely physical process. In the desiccated state, they can survive with a water content of 2-15% of their dry weight; during a rain, they may contain 100-300% of their dry weight as water.

Rock-inhabiting lichens have been implicated as agents initiating soil formationd. The underlying substrate is apparently chemically weathered by lichen compounds as well as subjected to mechanical destruction by the growing thallus. Partially weathered rock is then readily broken down by ice and other physical agents to form a primitive type of soil. As organic remains from lichen vegetation become incorporated among the rock particles, other forms of vegetation become established in this primitive soile.
Lichens are extremely slow-growing organisms, many increasing in size no more than 1 mm to 1 cm per year. Accordingly, large plants are probably quite ancient. The age of some arctic lichens has been calculated to be 4500 years, and lichen growth rates are sometimes used to set approximate dates of glacial retreat in arctic and alpine regions. Their slow rate of growth is probably correlated with their lack of adaptations to conserve water. In the dry state their vital activities continue only at an extremely reduced rate. Hydrated lichens, however, have the capacity to absorb from their environment large quantities of solutes–for example, phosphate.

A


問1. a, b, cの部分に適当な文章を補え。
問2. 枠でくくった部分A内の文章を日本語に訳せ
。 問3. dの機能を有するlichens以外の生物を2グループ以上英語で答えよ。
問.4. 下線部eについて知れるところを英文で述べよ。
2. 修士課程における研究計画を、(a) 研究目的、(b) その(地球)環境科学的な意義と、(c) 具体的な方法(2年間でまとめるという意味)について、それぞれ200語程度の英文で説明せよ。

博士課程生態環境科学専攻地域生態系学講座入試問題 (1999)

外国語(英語)
I. 以下の文章を読み問に答えよ。
Boreal forest plants take up organic nitrogen
Plant growth in the boreal forest, the largest terrestrial biome, is generally limited by the availability of nitrogen. The presumed cause of this limitation is slow mineralization of soil organic nitrogen. Here we demonstrate, to our knowledge for the first time, the uptake of organic nitrogen in the field by the trees Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies, the dwarf shrub Vaccinium myrtillus and the grass Deschampsia flexuosa. These results show that these plants, irrespective of their different types of root-fungal associations (mycorrhiza), bypass nitrogen mineralization. A trace of the amino acid glycine, labeled with the stable isotopes 13C and 15N, was injected into the organic (mor) layer of an old successional boreal coniferous forest. Ratios of 13C:15N in the roots showed that at least 91, 64 and 42% of the nitrogen from the absorbed glycine was taken up in intact glycine by the dwarf shrub, the grass and the trees, respectively. Rates of glycine uptake were similar to those of 15N-ammonium. Our data indicate that organic nitrogen is important for these different plants, even when they are competing with each other and with non-symbiotic microorganisms. This has major implications for our understanding of the effects of nitrogen deposition, global warming and intensified forestry.

A


Current conceptual models of nitrogen cyclingB in boreal forests are based on the assumption that mineralization of organic nitrogen is a prerequisite for plant nitrogen acquisition. Laboratory studies have shown, however, that some plants can use amino acids and proteins, thereby bypassing the common mineralization pathway. This has not been demonstrated in the field, where plants compete with soil microorganisms held to be superior in using organic substrates. It has been proposed that plants forming ericoid mycorrhiza and ectomycorrhiza are especially efficient at using organic nitrogen. This would give them a competitive advantage over plants forming arbuscular mycorrhiza and over non-mycorrhizal plants, and help explain their dominance in boreal forests, in which levels of organic nitrogen are typically high in the soil (compare with Table 1). If so, anthropogenic inorganic nitrogen deposition, climate warming and intensified silviculture could alter the composition of plant communities by promoting a shift from organic- towards inorganic-nitrogen nutrition. Again, field evidence demonstrating that organic-nitrogen uptake occurs and is exclusive to some groups of plants is lacking. The interaction between the abiotic soil system, mycorrhizal fungi, other micro-organisms and plants is complex, and studies showing higher gross turnover rates of inorganic nitrogen pools than previously assumed call for intensified studies of the nitrogen cycle, taking into account higher levels of complexity.

Table 1. Characteristics of the mor layer at the site studied, Renberget.
PHa_______________________________3.1 ± 0.0
C:N ratio__________________________ 36.6 ± 0.9
Total soil nitrogen (kg/ha)______________302 ± 33
Microbial nitrogen (kg/ha)b______________27 ± 3
Extractable amino-acid nitrogen (kg/ha)c__ 1.0 ± 0.1
Extractable inorganic nitrogen (kg/ha)c____0.3 ± 0.0
a: 0.04M CaCls, soil:solution ratio 1:10.
b: Using 0.45 as an estimate of the fraction of nitrogen released by fumigation.
c: In 2M KCl, soil:solution ratio 1:10.


The lack of data showing organic nitrogen uptake by plants in the field relates to methodological problems. Classic 15N-tracer technique cannot separate uptake of intact amino acids from uptake of mineralized nitrogen. 14C-labelling has been used in studies of hydroponic (soil-free, nutrient-water) systems, but not in the field. Double-labeled (13C, 15N) glycine was used in a macrocosm study of arctic tundra, showing that plant uptake of glycine-derived nitrogen was as fast as uptake of NH4+, but this gave no evidence that the 13C-labeled tracer was taken up. Variations in the natural abundance of 15N among plants in the field may be related to use of different nitrogen sources, but analysis of these variations is unlikely to yield conclusive quantitative evidence of the relative importance of organic and inorganic nitrogen uptake.

C


We aimed to test whether uptake of organic nitrogen occurs in the field, and to test whether plants with different types of mycorrhiza differ in this respect. We performed a low-tracer-level study with minimal disturbance of the soil-plant system in a late successional coniferous forest in northern Sweden (Table 1). Double, universally labeled (U) amino acid (U-13C2, 15N-glycine) injected at 1 kg nitrogen per hectare into the mor layer was used to study the importance of direct uptake of intact amino acid compared with uptake of nitrogen from mineralized amino acid, that is 15N-NH. Typical European boreal forest speciesD (the ectomycorrhizal trees Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst.), the ericoid-mycorrhizal dwarf shrub Vaccinium myrtillus L. and the arbuscular-mycorrhizal grass Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. were included in the study. Sequential sampling of above- and below-ground plant parts and mor layer soil was conducted after 6 h (2 h for above-ground parts), 1 day and 7 days. Respiration of 13C-CO2 was measured after 2 h, l day and 7 days.
問.
1. A枠内の文を日本語に訳せ。
2. 下線Bに関してmycorrhizaの役割を表1をもとに簡潔に日本語で説明せよ。
3. C枠内の内容を50字程度の日本語に要約せよ。
4. 日本における下線Dに関する特徴について知れるところを英語で記せ。
II. 博士課程における研究計画を、(1) 研究目的、(2) (地球)環境科学的意義、(3) 具体的方法(3年間でまとめるという意味)、(4) 予測される結果について、それぞれ5-10行程度の英文で説明せよ。
英語(英作文)
以下の1, 2の問に答えよ。
1. 以下の文章を英語に訳しなさい(本文の最後の括弧内に示した一行は訳す必要はない)。
 現在、地球上ではこれまでに見られなかった劇的な環境変化が全地球的規模で発生し、自然環境の悪化、生態系の破壊をもたらし、ひいては人類の存続すら懸念される事態にまで進展しつつある。このような地球環境問題は、人類が看過し得るものではなく、早急な対応が迫られている重要な事態である。これに対処するためには、自然環境の変化の機構を解明すると共に、人間の創造する環境と自然との調和・人間社会と自然界との調和の原理を、多方面かつ根本的に解明する新しい科学体系を必要とする。

(平成10年度北海道大学大学院地球環境科学研究科学生便覧より一部改変)

2. 以下の問に10-20行程度の英文で答えよ。
 嗜好品にはコーヒー、紅茶、緑茶、ビール、ワイン、日本酒等様々なものがある。あなたがもっとも好む嗜好品をまず述べ、ついで「他の嗜好品と比べてどのような点が優れているのかが明らかになるように」その理由を説明しなさい。すべての嗜好品が嫌いであれば「なぜすべての嗜好品があなたの嗜好にそぐわないのかが明らかになるように」その理由を説明しなさい。

博士課程生態環境科学専攻地域生態系学講座入試問題(2000)

外国語(英語)
I. 以下の文章を読み問に答えよ。

LEAVE IT A LAWN

An acre of lawn needs more than 27,000 gallons of water every week. But Americans use even more than that; we routinely overwater our lawns by 20 to 40%.
BACKGROUND. Lawn care isn't something you normally associate with saving the Earth. But when you consider that there are an estimated 20 million acres of lawn-and some 600 trillion grass plants - in the US, you can see the impact that watering, fertilizing, and mowing them might have. If you have a lawn, it's worthwhile to learn a few environmentally sound ways of taking care of it.
MOW. MOW, MOW
Some Mower Facts:
• Set your mower blades high. Don't be a victim of "golf course syndrome." Many Americans believe a healthy lawn looks like a manicured golf course; but the opposite is true. For most types of grass, the proper length is 2 to 3 inches in height. This encourages longer, healthier roots, and provides natural shade for the ground around each plant - which enables it to retain moisture in the soil.
• Keep mower blades sharp. Dull blades tear grass (instead of cleanly cutting it), weakening the plants, and making them more susceptible to weeds and disease.
Grass Clippings:
• "Cut it high and let it lie." During dry periods, leave grass cuttings on the lawn. This works well if you keep grass long and cut small amounts each time. Cuttings will serve as a moisture-retentive mulch and a natural fertilizer.
• At other times, use grass clippings and other lawn and garden waste to make a compost pile. It will provide your garden with natural mulch and fertilizer - and help reduce contributions to your local landfill.

A


FILL 'ER UP
• Most established lawns need about 1 inch of water a week, applied slowly to prevent runoff. This is considerably more effective than shorter, more frequent sprinklings.
• How can you tell if it's an inch? Put 3 cans around the area you're sprinkling, at varying distances from the sprinkler. Check them every five minutes to see how long it takes for an inch of water to accumulate in each. Add the 3 times together, and divide by 3 to get an average. That's how long to water.

Watering Tips
• Due to outdoor watering, water use in America increases by as much as 30% in the summer months.
Water from sprinklers evaporates 4-8 times faster during the heat of the day than in the early morning. Watering at night is better than midday - there's no evaporation problem - but it can cause fungus in the grass plants.B Best choice: water in the morning.
• In a drought, don't waste water on grass beginning to turn brown.It's dormant and will revive after normal rainfall begins again.
ABOUT PESTICIDES
• Homeowners use up to 10 times more toxic chemicals per acre than farmers.
• The average homeowner uses 5 to 10 pounds per lawn - for a national total of some 25 to 50 million pounds! Many scientists believe these chemicals endanger the songbird population (by contaminating the worms they eat), as well as polluting groundwater.
• A green, healthy lawn is possible without chemical pesticides.
RESULTS
1) If every lawnowner composted grass clppings, we could cut the landfill congestion by a whopping 18% during summer and spring.
2) Avoiding overwatering can save about 12% of a homeowner's water use during the summer - an average of over 50 gallons a week. If 100,000 lawnowners do it, 5 million gallons are saved.
3) If even 10% of lawnowners began using organic pesticides, it would remove 2.5 to 5 million pounds of toxic chemicals from the environment every year.

C



1. A枠内の文を日本語に訳せ。
2. 下線Bをまず日本語に訳し、ついでfungus-plant interactionについて知れることを日本語で記せ。
3. C枠内の1-3の項目は、実証が伴なわないと、そのような言うことは言えない。これらの数値を得るために、どのような調査実験を行なえばよいか1-3のうちから一つを選び英文で答えなさい。
4. 上記文章の内容ついて、見解を異にする部分があれば、a) その部分を日本語に要約し、b) 自分の見解を英文で述べなさい。全てに同意するとすれば、a) 日本(あるいは北海道)では見られない部分を日本語に要約し、b)日本(あるいは北海道)にどのように応用すべきか英文で答えなさい。
II. 博士課程における研究計画を、(1) 研究目的と(地球)環境科学的意義、(2) 具体的方法(3年間でまとめるという意味)、(3) 予測される結果とそのオリジナリティについて、それぞれ簡潔な(5-10行程度)英文で説明せよ。

地域生態系学講座 博士後期課程入試問題

英語 (2001 年は間違えてるかも)
問題用紙は全部で2枚ある (辞書使用不可)
I. 次の文は、ある雑誌に掲載されていた書評である。これを読み、問1-2に答えよ。

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: AN EXPERIMENTALIST’S (MODERN) DESCRIPTION


Morin, Peter J. 1999. Community ecology. Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts. viii + 424 p. $45.95, ISBN: 0-86542-350-4.
This textbook was developed from the course that Morin has taught for 15 years to graduate students at Rutgers University. The preface states that it should be useful to upper-level undergraduates and graduate students. It will be useful to professionals too; it is a solid text with up-to-date treatment. It covers no new ground, but draws much material together in one volume in such a way that any interested person can save a lot of time in finding both useful references and at least one synthesis of many important ideas. I will draw on the text in this way repeatedly in the several ecology courses that I teach.
The book's purpose is to serve as a text for a course in community ecology, and it will serve admirably. Any serious student attempting to wend his way through the complexities of this rather difficult subject will find excellent assistance. Any professor teaching a community ecology course will find that the text provides much organizational help and direction.
The content is much the same as has been included in similarly titled tomes for the past two decades and that I remember studying under that rubric as an undergraduate in the 1960s (but much updated, of course). However, probably because Morin has written the book out of experience and as a text, he has provided a heavy dose of population ecology not usually considered to be a part of community ecology in several key places, to make sure that all the intended student audience is ready to explore the community ecology topics. Professors commonly employ this quite useful device. Having this material in one volume will facilitate that practice for professor and student alike.
The main text is in three parts: (I) 'Communities: basic patterns and elementary processes"; (II) "Factors influencing interactions among species"; and (III) "Large-scale, integrative community phenomena." Slightly more than 60% of the text is in Part I, which introduces communities, treats the interactions among populations that Morin considers central to any legitimate concept of community (competition, predation, food webs, mutualism, and indirect effects), and describes the function and contribution of observations, models, and experiments (laboratory and field) to current understandings of communities. Part II (just under 20% of the text) examines temporal patterns in assemblages (but not succession), habitat selection, and spatial dynamics (including recruitment and island biogeography). Part III (slightly less than 20%) analyses species diversity, succession, and applications of community ecology to resource management. Morin's treatment and inclusion of material are appropriate and consistent with current understandings of the field.
I found the organization laid out in the table of contents (summarized above) and the organization within parts and chapters to be excellent. Subjects are treated in an appropriate order, and are properly integrated with each other so as to allow the naive or the sophisticated reader to readily relate material from one section with material from another. The 15-page index is very complete, with entries that fit both student's and practitioner's expectations. I asked several students to find information on topics they chose, and all found the material they wanted. Morin's writing is clear, concise, and to the point, yet includes sufficient elaboration to be convincing. The placement of the material on stability analysis in an appendix as one example of a useful method in community ecology is appropriate, but I would have liked to have seen additional methods covered similarly. This is not a major weakness of the book as a text, since many methods manuals in ecology are available, and since graduate students are usually expected to develop methods or to adapt them from original sources for any laboratory work carried out as part of a course.

A



The book is typical of most recent texts for advanced courses, with adequate illustrations (most drawn from published sources, a few original to illustrate concepts or points) emphasizing science rather than being included as pedagogical devices. The illustrations effectively communicate by complementing the text. The treatment of community ecology will not surprise many, and the opening statement ("Ecology is the science of communities," quoted from Victor Shelford) reflects Morin's lifelong work and passion in this area, probably without bias against other subdisciplines in ecology. He is simply emphasizing that ecology involves interactions, and that no natural unit without interactions is complete. He recognizes that others include ecosystem function as a part of community ecology, but excludes it himself from this treatment. I concur, considering that the interactions among populations that are treated here as being a part of community ecology are explored with very different methods from the chemical approaches of the ecosystem ecologist. However, I would also disagree with the opening statement, Shelford's well deserved recognition as a founding parent of modern ecology not-withstanding. The topics explored in this book are part of a continuum of environmental interaction ranging from how the individual copes with physical features on a physiological scale, to complex chemical and physical processes on a global scale. This is a quibble rather than a significant criticism.
There are 28 pages of references, about 20 per page. Reference dates range from the 1830s through 1998, with 40 from 1996-1998. These recent references are well integrated into the text. The coverage is generally even across taxa; the large number of plant, insect, and other invertebrate papers probably reflects the literature. However, the slightly greater number of amphibian papers (22 readily recognized) versus fish (19 readily recognized) is almost certainly partly the result of Morin’s selection of reports; the fish literature on the community level is exceedingly rich and fishes have made important contributions to community ecology in the past two decades. Morin's purpose was not to review community ecology as illustrated by any particular taxa, but to elucidate principles by drawing on examples and developing generalizations. This he did well. So again, this is a quibble, not a major criticism, and may reflect my own interest in fishes. Certainly, most of the most important contributions that led to general principles being developed are included, regardless of taxa investigated or the date when the contribution was made.
I cannot offer any complaints about the analysis or conclusions included in the text. It is an excellent synthesis of modern community ecology. Students looking for a "soft" introduction will be disappointed, since full mathematical rigor is included. Morin's explanation of the models he chooses to use should be suitable for anyone with a background in calculus and algebra. Practitioners will benefit most from the excellent literature list and the compilation of this content in a single well-integrated book. The sewn paper binding seems sturdy enough, but libraries will likely want to rebind the book for their collections.
DAVID L. MCNEELY
The University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College
Biological Sciences
80 Fort Brown
Brownsville, Texas 78520
問1. 枠でくくった部分A内の文章を日本語に訳せ。
問2. あなたは、この書評を読み、内容的な理由から、この本を買いたくないと思っているとする。以下の(1)-(2)に答えよ。
(1) 日本語で、書評中、あなたが買いたくない理由となる部分の要点を簡潔に(10行程度)、最後の文を「… と述べている。」と書いてまとめよ。ついで、買わない理由(5行程度)を、最初の文章は、「しかしながら、…」で始まり、最後の文章は「… の理由から買う必要を全く感じない。」となるように説明せよ。 (2) (1)を英語に訳せ。
II. 博士課程における研究計画を、英語を用い論文形式(Introduction, Materials and methods, Results, Discussionのスタイルをとるという意味)で説明せよ(1ページ以内)。
ただし、(1) 研究目的と地球環境科学的意義、(2) 具体的方法(3年間でまとめるという意味)、(3) 予測される結果とそのオリジナリティについて、が説明中に必ず含まれること。

地域生態系学講座 博士後期課程入試問題

英語 (2002.2.27)
問題用紙は全部で1枚である (辞書使用不可)
I. 次の文は、ある雑誌に掲載されていた論文の要旨である。以下の問1-2に答えよ。

Abstract

Ksudach Volcano, southern Kamchatka Peninsula, erupted in 1907 and impacted over 2000 km2 of forests with air-fall pumice deposits. We identified three impact zones. In Zone I, deposits deeper than 100 cm destroyed all vegetation(a). Two early successional stages occur, a lichen(b)-dominated desert and isolated patches of a pioneer herb stage. Zone II is defined by pumice deposits 30 to 100cm deep. Deposits of 70 to 100cm destroyed all vegetation, but left scattered snags. Here primary succession(c) dominates recovery, but its rate varies. Isolated trees survived in deposits of 30 to 70 cm and primary and secondary successional stages form a complex mosaic termed an intermediate succession. In Zone II, the primary stages found in Zone I are joined by a dwarf shrub-herb stage and a secondary birch forest stage. Zone III occurs where thinner deposits permitted some vegetation to survive in all locations. Secondary succession dominates in deposits of 10 to 30 cm. Trees suffered damage, but survived deposits of 20 to 30 cm, while other vegetation layers were eliminated. Deposits of 10 to 20 cm eliminated mosses and lichens and but only reduced the number of dwarf shrubs(d) and herbs. Deposits of less than 10 cm damaged herb, moss and lichen layers but did not eliminate any species. All sampled vegetation remains in a pre-climax state, having yet to recover fully from earlier eruptions. Reconstructed vegetation maps for before 1907 and for ca. 1925 are compared to the map of vegetation in 1994. Based on degree of soil formation(e), vegetation recovery and colonization rates at different pumice depths, and the current vegetation, we estimate that full recovery of the soil-vegetation system will take more than 2000 years.

1. Abstract以降の英文全文を訳せ。
2. 下線部の用語(a)-(e)の意味を簡潔に英語で説明せよ。


II. 博士課程における研究計画を、英語を用い論文形式(Introduction, Materials and methods, Results, Discussionのスタイルをとるという意味)で説明せよ(1ページ以内)。
ただし、(1) 研究目的と地球環境科学的意義、(2) 具体的方法(3年間でまとめるという意味)、(3) 予測される結果とそのオリジナリティについて、が説明中に必ず含まれること。
和文英訳
以下の問1, 2に答えよ。
問1. 以下の文章を英語に訳しなさい。
  遠くから見ると、まっすぐ伸びた松のように見える。近寄って、初めてお目にかかる花であるとわかった。東京都中央区の浜離宮庭園で、55年目にして開花したというリュウゼツランである。
  メキシコ原産で、一生に一度花を咲かせることで知られる。いつ咲くかはわからない。
  浜離宮庭園のリュウゼツランは戦後まもない1948年に植えられたそうだ。半世紀以上を経て今年5月初めから茎が伸び始めた。1日約10センチというスピードだ。高さ8 mほどになった7月末から開花し始めた。太い茎から伸びた枝に黄色い花が密集して咲く。
  開花の報は日本各地から時折届く。去年夏には、奈良教育大学で咲いた。30年ほど前に園芸好きの教授が植えたものだという。英語では、やや大げさに1世紀に一度咲くとしてセンチュリー・プラントといわれる。
  きのう訪れた浜離宮庭園のリュウゼツランにはハチが群がっていた。55年間にわたって蓄積してきた生命力をすべて開花にそそぎ込んだ植物には、何かうかがい知れない不思議な力があるのかもしれない。

(朝日新聞2003年7月29日「天声人語」一部改変)

【語注】
離宮 = detached palace, リュウゼツラン = maguey , 茎 = stem

問2. 以下のa-dの中から1つを選び、その意味を100語程度で説明せよ。

a. 地球温暖化
b. オゾンホール
c. 環境汚染物質
d. 生物多様性


生態環境科学専攻修士課程入試問題

英語(英文解釈)
次の文を読んで問1-6に答えよ。和訳に際し、固有名詞(地名、人名)はカタカナでも英語をそのまま綴ったものでも構わない。
Disturbances to ecosystems caused by military activities must be distinguished according to whether they occur during times of war or peace.  In war, environmental planning is not a predominant concern. During peacetime, disturbances may accompany military training activities, often with an opportunity to document, minimize, and mitigate their negative impacts on the environment.

A


Wartime disturbances often are catastrophic and at large spatial and temporal scales. Disturbance impacts may cross regional and national boundaries, particularly for such conflicts as World Wars I and II. During wartime battles, with victory the primary concern, there is little concern for adverse effects on the environment; environmental planning and management play little part. Impacts are not studied in advance, and documentation may not be undertaken at all until political arenas are stabilized.
Defeat of a nation or group of peoples can be facilitated by eliminating their environmental resources. General Sherman of the Union Army practiced the "scorched earth"* approach as he made his way to capture Atlanta, Georgia, during the Civil War in the United States during the 1860s, burning all resources of potential use by his enemy. During World War II, large areas of reclaimed lands in the Benelux countries were flooded with sea water to impede the German invasion. During the Vietnam War, up to 40% of the land area of Vietnam, and 44% of all forests, were sprayed with defoliants*. This defoliation, combined with effects from bombs and heavy equipment, destroyed forest vegetation* over an estimated 22 × 106 ha in South and North Vietnam. Recovery of these defoliated forests has been slow and soil erosion* prevalent on steep slopes.
Direct impacts of military munitions* can be significant. In Vietnam, an estimated 25 × 106 bomb and shell craters displaced about 3 × 109 m3 soil. A 227 kg high explosive bomb can form a crater 14 m in diameter and 9 m deep, and the crater may still be plainly visible 25 years later. Roughly 3.5 × 106 such bombs were dropped in Vietnam during 1968 and 1969.
Turning to military activities in peacetime, the management of military lands involves facilitating use of those lands for training. Inevitably, use leads to disturbance. Military training, while not as dramatic a disturbance as the direct effects of war, can have a widespread influence on the land. Although most of our information comes from lands administered by the United States Department of Defense, we should know the impacts of army training in the other countries, such as Australia, Canada, Germany, and Japan.
It is the policy of the United States Army to maintain training lands in a condition which closely mimics the natural conditions under which actual warfare would be conducted, as well as for wildlife* habitat and other natural values. In particular, it is the goal of the Department of Defense to reduce or avoid long-term impacts on natural resources caused by military training.

B



Military land-use* is frequently intensive, especially where maneuvers* are conducted with tracked vehicles. For instance, at Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site, Fort Carson, Colorado, after two years (six training rotations), a line-transect* study in three out of five training areas, with observations at one-meter intervals, showed that 40% of the surface area had been impacted by tracked vehicles. Under such training regimes, military land-managers are responsible for maintaining and rehabilitating training lands. Importantly, many habitats and species are protected from private development by the presence of military installations. Also, base longevity and maintenance of realistic habitat conditions for training require proactive resource management. Therefore, it is good policy for the military to manage its lands in ways consistent with sound stewardship. Disturbances resulting from military activities are multi-faceted, affecting ecosystems at several points; soil structure is damaged through compaction causing erosion, and vegetation is damaged or destroyed causing modification and loss of wildlife habitat. Such damage to the soil and the vegetation compromise the realism of the training exercise, creating an incentive to train in alternative undisturbed locations. This expansion of the training grounds creates further disturbance.
The management approach on lands of the United States Department of Defense has increasingly incorporated the concept of ecosystem management. This concept allows the Department to consider the full array of natural resources on lands under their stewardship. For some time, it was a priority to identify "indicator species" which could be used to indicate early stages of habitat disturbance. More recently, documentation and monitoring of long-term change has received emphasis. The approach has thus focused on development of repeatable methodologies, appropriate in many ecosystems.

C


Demarais, S. et al. 1999. Disturbance associated with military exercises. In: Walker L. R. (ed.). Ecosystems of the World vol. 16 "Ecosystems of disturbed ground". Elsevierから抜粋、一部改変。引用文献略す
【語注例】 [本文中に*印がついている] (ここに示されている訳例にとらわれる必要はない)
scorched earth = 焦土, defoliant = 枯葉剤, vegetation = 植生(植物群集), erosion = 侵食, munitions = 軍需品, wildlife = 野生生物, land-use = 土地利用, maneuver = 大演習, line-transect = ライントランゼクト(帯状調査区)
【問1】 A枠内の文を日本語に訳せ。
【問2】 B枠内の文を日本語に訳せ。
【問3】 C枠内の文を日本語に訳せ。
【問4】 枯葉剤散布域の全ての森林が破壊されたと仮定すると、ベトナム戦争以前に南北ベトナムには、どの程度の森林面積があったと推定されるか。
【問5】 爆弾による窪みが円錐形に形成されると仮定すると、1発227 kgの爆弾を爆発させると、どの程度の土壌がそこから飛散すると推定されるか。円周率は3として計算して構わない。
【問6】 本文中から、戦時中と平時(平和時)における軍事演習による撹乱の違いと、平時における軍事演習地の管理の重要性について書かれていることを150字以内にまとめよ。
フッター