Geography

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Geography (地理学)

Mount Usu / Sarobetsu post-mined peatland
From left: Crater basin in 1986 and 2006. Cottongrass / Daylily

HOME > Lecture catalog / Research summary > Glossary > Geography

[Japan, Hokkaido] [geomorphology · geoecology]

Human geography (人文地理学): a branch of the social sciences related to the world, its people, communities and cultures

economic geography
social geography

Physical geography, geosystems or physiography (自然地理学): a branch of natural sciences dealing with processes and patterns in the natural environments in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere

geomorphology
climatology
biogeography
terraquatic science

[remote sensing]

Map (地図)

Symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, and themes.

[ natural science ]

History of map

Thales (BC624-BC526): BC5c gnomonic or central projection (心射図法)
Eratosthenes (BC275-BC194), Ancient Greek

measured the circumference of the earth

Apollonius of Perga (BC262?-BC190?), Ancient Greek: BC240

orthographic projection (正射図法)

Hipparchos (BC190?-BC125?), Ancient Greek: BC late-2C

stereographic projection (平射図法)

⇒ applied to sundial, star chart, etc.
Marinus of Tyre (70?-130?), Greek?

equirectangular projection (正距円筒図法)

The Age of Navigation (16th-17th Century) - need (world) maps
Stab, Johann (Stabius, Johannes, 1460―1522, Austria)
Werner, Johannes (1468-1522, Germany)

→ Stab-Werner projection

Apian, Peter (Bienewitz, 1495-1552)

1530 used Stab-Werner projection for world map

Fine, Oronce (1494-1555, France)

1531 used Stab-Werner projection for (semi-)world map

applied by Mercator (1538)

Mercator, Gerhardus (1512-1594)
Flemish (Belgium) geographer and cartographer
Mercator projection (1569)
Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigantium Emendate Accommodata
a cylindrical map projection → standard map for navigation

Wright, Edward (1558-1615): showing the drawing by the projection
Sir Dudley, Robert (1574-1649): 1646-1647 marine char

Ortelius, Abraham (1527-1598, Belgium)

published atlas "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum" (1570)

Cossin, Jean (France): used Sanson projection (1570)

Sanson, Nicholas (1600―1667, France): used this projection (1650)

Bonne, Rigobert (1727-1795): Bonne projection
De l'Isle, Joseph Nicolas (1688-1768)
Mollweide, Karl Brandon (1774-1825): Mollweide projection (1805)
von Hammer, Ernst (1858-1925): Hammer projection (1892)
Eckert, Max (1868-1938): Eckert projection (1906)
Winkel, Oswald (1873-1953): Winkel projection (1921)
Goode, John Paul (1862-1932):

homolosine projection and Goode projection (1923)

Miller, Osborn Maitland (1897-1979): Miller projection (1942)
Robinson, Arthur H. (1915-2004): Robinson projection (1974) late 20th c (developing computer and satellite technology)
Colvocoresses, Alden P. (1918-2007)

(universal) oblique Mercator projection (1974)
Snyder, John P. (1926-1997): improved in 1978

Projection (図法)

Mercator projection (メルカトル図法)

1569 proposed by Mercator

cylindrical map projection
the standard projection for navigation because of uniqueness in representing north as up and south as down everywhere and preserving local directions and shapes
Fig. Distortion of sizes shown by proportions of apparent size and real size

Mollweide projection (モルワイデ投影図法)

= Babinet projection, homalographic projection, homolographic projection and elliptical projection

an equal-area, pseudocylindrical map projection often used for night sky

Universal transverse Mercator projection, UTM

1947 proposed by the headquarters of United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

the Transverse Mercator projection to mapping the world, using 60 pre-defined standard zones to supply parameters

Lambert conformal projection (ランベルト正角図法)

Petas projection (ペータース図法)

Digital elevation model, DEM (デジタル標高モデル)

Database

5 Free Global DEM Data Sources – Digital Elevation Models

[biodiversity hotspots, biome, volcanoes]

World (世界)

Classification of continents

Asia (アジア)

China

Beijing Olympic Games: Zhangjiakou (张家口). Shenyang (沈阳). Chongli (崇礼)*. Hebei (河北). Thaiwoo (太舞)*. Wanlong (万龙). Genting (云顶)*. Taizicheng (太子城). (*:ski resort)

Wuhan (武漢)

Geoparks

Leye-Fengshan Geopark-P.R.China (中国乐山凤山世界地质公园), located in northwestern Guangxi, southwest China

Shambhala (シャンバラ)

Tibetan Buddhism: an ideal Buddhist kingdom described in the Kalacatantra

reduction of disaster, such as volcanic eruptions and tsunami, and seclusion

Bangladesh - climate map
▇▇ monsoon
▇▇ tropical savanna
▇▇ humid subtropical
▇▇ humid subtropical/subtropical
oceanic highland

Bangladesh

It was the West Pakistan when I was an elementary school student
Capita = Dhaka (largest in the country)
Population (2015) = ca 170 million → density = 1034/km² Geography =

largely dominated by the fertile Bengal delta

Social problems =

political instability
corruption
poverty
overpopulation
global warming

Purbachal New Town Project

24.9 km²
Sal forest in Purbachal
Sal: Shorea robusta Roth
Sal forest: 122 ha in 2002 → 41 ha in 2014

Pakistan

= Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Southeastern Asia

Khmer Empire or Angkor Empire (802-1218)

origin of Cambodia
Angkor Wat: 162.6 ha - ditch-enclosed castle

Sukhothai dynasty (≈1240-1438)

the oldest dynasty established by Tai peoples in the present Thailand

strong buddhist faith - one cause of decline

Ayutthaya dynasty (1351-1767)

Tai peoples
supported by international trade

Pagan kingdom, empire or dynasty

Bamar people
the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions (Myanmar in the present)
1044-1077 Anawrahta, Minsaw, reigned (founder)
1314 demolition

Indonesia (インドネシア)

Indonesia Natural History National Museum (Museum Nasional Sejarah Alam Indonesia, MUNASAIN) on January 25 2018

Biological Indonesia (Hayati Indonesia)

Flora: Taxon (Indonesia / World (dunia) × 100, %)
a. Spore plant (91,251/1,560,500 = 6
1. Cryptogame (Kriptogam)

- Mushrooms (Jamur) (86,000/1,500,000 = 6)

750,000 (Micro 64,000 identified (diidentifikasi). Macro 16,000)

- Lichens (Lichen) 595/20,000 = 3
- Liverwort (Hepaticae) 949/7,500 = 8
- Musci (Musci) 1,510/23,000 = 6

2. Ferns (Paku-pakuan) 2,197/10,000 = 22
b. Seed plant 19,232/251,000 = 8
1. Gymnospermae 120/1,000 = 12
2. Angiospermae 250,000 (identified 19,122, 8 probably 30,000-40,000)

Decrease in forests and era of wood industries in Indoensia

In 19th century, most of Indonesian land, i.e., 193.7 million ha was covered by forests (MacKinnon 1997)
In 1950, 163 million ha (84%) of Indonesian land was still covered by primary and secondary forests; tea, coffee, and rubber plantations (Indonesia Forest Agency 1950)

Deforestation since 1970 (million ha/year)
Deforestation rate: In 1985-1997: 1.7 (World Bank 2000)
In 1997-2003: 2.83 (Bappenas 2003)
In 2000-2005: 1.9 (FAO 2007)
Era of plywood industries 1980-1997
In 1967-1979, forestry sectors played an important role as foreign-exchange sources through exporting of round woods (Munarsih 2008)
In 1980-1997, rapid development of Plywood Industries; from 2 factories in 1973, increased 122 factories in 1997 (Munarsih 2008)
Era of pulp-paper industries since 1987

In 1985, forest area was 119 million ha or decreased by 27% from 1950; covering 63% of land (RePPProT 1990)

Collapse of Plywood Wood Industries since 1998
(1) economic crisis in 1997, fall-off of IDR exchange rate, investor debts,
(2) decreasing of wood raw material supply, increasing of wood raw material price,
(3) decreasing of forest potency, infraction of forest management by Forest Concessions,
(4) eco-labelling regulation, illegal exploitation and export,
(5) development of Oil Palm Industries.
Development of forest plantation since 1990
Acacia mangium (Mangium)
Paraserianthes falcataria (Sengon)
Tactona grandis (Teak)

In 1997, forest area was 100 million ha or decreased by 17% from 1985; covering 50% of land
In the early 20th century, forest area was estimated 98 million ha (Wasson & Applegate 2000)

Era of oil palm industries since 2005

Imaginary lines underlying bioregion sharing in Indonesia

Garis Imajiner yang Mendasari Pembagian Bioregion di Indonesia

Sumatra
Jawa
Kallimantan

Wallace Line: a faunal boundary line proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1859 → birds, shells and insects

Sulawesi
Nusa Tenggara

Weber Line: proposed by Max Carl Wilhelm Weber van Bosse → freshwater fish

Maluku

Lydekker Line: proposed by Richard Lydekker

Papua

→ biogeography
→ vertical distribution of vegetation on Mount Jayawijaya

IPB, January 23/24 2018

Hokkaido University Liaison Office in Indonesia: Grand opening studium generale and workshop

Objectives of this workshop

Connect: to connect young faculties of Hokkaido University with researchers and faculty members from Indonesia
Collaborate: to build research collaboration involving both countries
Contribute: to give solution for problems in Indonesia/Japan or world, and improve the life quality in both countries

Pacific (太平洋)

Oceania = Melanesia + Micronesia + Polynesia + Australasia

Micronesia

a subregion of Oceania (composed of thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean)

Mariana Islands

a part of Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc (IBM Arc)
Chamorro, a micronesian native, lived - 17C forced relocation to Guam

9C-17C Latte stone (Taga stone) - use unknown

Caroline Islands

1527 exploration by Diego da Rocha (Portugal) - later, Spanish territory
1899 sold to Germany - until first World War
1914 Japanese territory - 1920 territory mandated by Japan
After WII: trust territory of the Pacific Islands

1986 Federated States of Micronesia
1994 Republic of Palau

≈500-≈1628 Nan Madol: Pohnpei, capital of Saudeleur dynasty

stoen walls and megalith consisting of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals in a lagoon
mallpox introduced by white whalers
Pohnpei: volcanic island - Nahnalaud 798 m elevation, Ngihneni 791 m

enclosed by mangroves

Melanesia

a subregion of Oceania (from New Guinea island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Tonga)

Polynesia

a subregion of Oceania, made up of more than 1000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean

Easter Island (Isla de Pascua, Rapa Nui)

formed by the eruptions of underwater volcano

The last eruption recorded in 100 Kya
3 major volcanoes: Terevaka (507 m elevation), Poike and Rano Kau

First people probably immigrated in 12th C (carbon dating)

Moai: monolithic human figures carved by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island between 1250 and 1500 → deforestation

Tuvalu

Samoa (サモア)

Independent State of Samoa (1962) |W171°| American Samoa (territory)
Independent State of Samoa, often called as Samoa
Capital city: Apia on Upolu Island
Samoa

Volcanoes: Savai'i and Upolu
Samoa

Fig. Monthly precipitation and temperature in Apia

Tonga

Europe (欧州)

Plants in Svalbard
Sanionia uncinata (カギハイゴケ)
Cetrariella delisei (トゲエイランタイ)
Salix polaris (キョクチヤナギ)
Saxifraga oppositifolia (ムラサキユキノシタ)
Dryas octopetala (チョウノスケソウ)

Spitsbergen

The largest island in Svalbard Islands (N76-81°,)
1926 Amundsen. Norge Roald
1926 Byrd, Richard E.

Netherlands

Def. Polder (ポルダー): ow-lying tract of land forming an artificial hydrological entity, enclosed by embankments (dikes)
Before the Second World War, 30% of land was polder

Land reclaimed from a body of water, such as a lake or the seabed
Flood plains separated from the sea or river by a dike
Marshes separated from surrounding and drained by a dike (koogs)

saline water conversion → sowing reed seeds → mesic succession (= terrestrialization) → prescribed fire → cropland/forest/building

North America (北アメリカ)

Mountains

Alaskan Range
Coast Ranges___________________________Laurentian Plateau
__Cascade Range__Rocky Mountains
Sierra Nevada Range_______________Appalachian Mountains
__________Sierra Madre Range

Alaska (アラスカ)

• wildfire (森林火災)

Nome

FRONT STREET: Front Street has been the business district of Nome since the Gold Rush. In 1900, the street was lined with businesses, bars and bunkhouses. A miner could buy anything, from French lingerie to a hot bath.

Cascade Range (Cascades, カスケード)

[ plant species | vertical distribution | forest | wetland ]
Major Cascade Range volcanoes

Mount St. Helens (セントへレンズ山)
Mount Rainier (Mount Rainier)

Portland, Oregon

Downtown: ESA meeting in 2017

South America (南アメリカ)

Guyana (ガイアナ)

= Co-operative Republic of Guyana (Capital: Georgetown)
Official languages: English (only this country in South America)

1831 British colony, called British Guiana
1899 international tribunal ruled the land belonged to Great Britain
1966 independence from UK

One People, One Nation, One Destiny

Galapagos Islands (ガラパゴス諸島)

= Islas Galápagos (Spanish, galápago = turtle)
archipelago of volcanic islands in the Eastern Pacific
around the Equator 900 km west of the mainland of South America

officially the Galápagos Province of the Republic of Ecuador

Fig. Galapagos Islands (Equador)

History

1535 Fray Tomás de Berlanga: firstly discovered

the Bishop of Panama - distress and reached Galapagos
reported in letters to the Pope - officially confirmed

1546 Captain Diego de Rivadeneira: second visiter

The islands named Las Islas Encantadas (enchanted or bewitched islands)

1570 Abraham Ortelius 1527-1598 (Flemish cartographer)

draw world atlas - the islands named Insulae de los de Galapagos

whale hunt: pirate was popular before whale hunt
1793 Captain Colnett, James: Ship Rattler, whale hunt

reported a post in Post Office Bay on Floreana Island

1807 Watkins, Patrick (Irish sailor) - first settlement

marooned on Floreana - survived by available drinking water, hunting, growing vegetables and trading with visiting whalers

exploitation started
1832 sovereignty of Galápagos claimed by Ecuador

formal nomenclature = Archipiélago de Colón

settlement promoted = ecosystem deterioration

overhunting Ex. giant tortoises
livestock introduction Ex. donkey, cow, pig
vegetable introduction Ex. lemon, orange, guava

1832 General Villamil, Jose Maria: colonization to western Floreana

1835 (Darwin visited) 300 people (1832 80)
1847 moved to San Cristobal, because of using for place of exile

1897 Gil, Antonio: thrid attempt at colonization
1924 Beebe, William 1877-1962: Galápagos: World's end

accompanied Harrison Williams Galapagos expedition (1923)

Heyerdahl, Thor 1914-2002, adventurer and ethnographer

1947 Kon-Tiki expedition - drifted 8000 km
1953 discovered potteries on Galápagos Islands
⇒ Indio settled on the Islands before 1535

≈ 1975: constrction of road network
2000 Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus 1928-2018

Galapagos. Die Arche Noah im Pazifik

Geography (地理)

Miocene (23.03-5.332 mya): volcanoes on the ocean floor
Table. Recent eruption history
1150 Ecuador
1813 Darwin
1906 Santiago Island
1928 Pinta Island
1991 Marchena Island
1993 Alcedo
2008 Cerro Azul
2018 Sierra Negra
2022 Wolf
2024 La Cumbre

Biology (生物)

1825 Douglas, David & Scouler, John: collected 23 plant specimens
1825 McRae, James: collected 41 specimens from Isabela Island
1829 Cuming, Hugh 1791-1865: collected 9 specimens
1835 Beagle: arrived - Darwin
1905- expedition rush
1957 Bowman and Eibl-Eibesfeldt Team: a 4-month expedition

supported by the IUCN and UNESCO
research on nature conservation
planned Charles Darwin Research Station (CDRS), based on this

A part of Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot
Seed plants: 500 species in 206 genera

Asteraceae: 56 secies in 22 genera - 42 endemic species

Table 1. Geographical relationships of the indigenous vascular plants of the Galapagos Islands (Porter 1976)

Pteridophytes
Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons
Total

Endemic
8
20
208
206
(45%)

Neo-
52
38
65
155
(10%)

Pan-
14
22
26
62
(12%)

Andean
15
3
43
61
(12%)

M/CA

4
4
(1%)

SA
2

2
4
(1%)

Total
91
83
848
522

Neo-: Neogropical. Pan-: Pantropical. M/CA: Mexico and Central America. SA: South America

Table 2. Original introductions that have resulted in the present vascular plant flora of the Galapagos Islands

Introduced
Pteridophytes
Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons
Total
Total for natural introductions

Birds
1
58
166
225(40%)
225(40%)

Man

38
143
181 (32%)

Wind
86
14
18
118(21%)
118(31%)

Drift*

2
33
35(6%)
35(9%)

Total
87
112
360
559
378

*: Oceanic drift

Scalesia Arn. (スカレシア), Asteraceae

lifeform: soft, pithy wooded tree - unusual for Asteraceae

shrubs: arid lowland ↔ trees: mesic highland

distribution: endemic to the Galapagos Islands
an ancestral species → 12 shrubs and 3 trees in response to moisture

= the Darwin's finches of the plant world
blooming in the year it germinates, depending on the conditions

- herbaceous characteristics

Other endemic Asteraceous genera: 3 genera

Darwiniothamnus Harling: D. alternifolius Lawesson et Adsersen, D. lancifolius (Hook. f.) Harling, D. tenuifolius (Hook. f.) Harling
Lecocarpus Decne.: L. darwinii H. Adsersen, L. lecocarpoides (B. L. Rob. et Greenm ) Cronquist et Stuessy, L. pinnatifidus Decne.
Macraea Hook. f., nom. illeg. later homonym non Lindl.

Africa (アフリカ)

The place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes)
Area: 30,370,000 km²
Language: 1250–3000 native languages
Region:

North Africa
West Africa
Central Africa
East Africa
Southern Africa

Deforestation + soil degradation

Fig. Present vegetation_____________Fig. Potential present vegetation

These maps are similar with the map of Köppen climate classification

Ghana Empire (Ghanata or Wagadou)

AD1C-AD3C: established

control of the trans-saharan gold trade
(gold, textiles, foods and salt)

1050 conversion to Islam
1235 submitted to the Mali Empire
1874-1957 British colony

[ Western Australia | Anthem ]

Australia (豪州)

Australasia: a region of Oceania, comprises Australia, New Zealand, neighboring islands in the Pacific Ocean, and sometimes, the island of New Guinea

Australia
♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ ♠ Tropical rainforest Savanna Temperate humid Mediterranean Desert Steppe West coast marine Dec-Apr averages
2-3 per season Feb-Mar peak
averages 3 per
season

Fig. Climate features. ♠ climate stations. Arrows: preferredd tropical cyclone
Tropical rainforest
Mediterranean: smoke-induced seed germinaiton

Fig. Vegetation formation (Moore & Perry 1970). Arid zone boundary derived from rainfall and evaporation.

Nullabor Plain (ナラボー平原)

Etymology: nullus (none)+ abor (tree)
20000 km² (1200 km long from east to west)
Annual precipitation < 250 mm

Polar regions (極地)

= Arctic + Antarctic
Def. Arctic: polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth

Arctic Ocean and the adjacent seas
parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Russia and Sweden

Arctic Alaska (Far North Alaska): a region of Alaska generally referring to the northern areas on or close to the Arctic Ocean

= North Slope Borough, Northwest Arctic Borough, Nome Census Area, and is sometimes taken to include parts of the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area
Some notable towns there include Prudhoe Bay, Utqiagvik, Kotzebue, Nome, and Galena

Def. Antarctic: --- the southernmost part of Earth

Subpolar region

around latitudes 60° to 65° N/S of the Equator

Greenland (グリーンランド)

Kalaallit Nunaat (island of human, Greenlandic) - Dominion (自治領) of Denmark