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Mount Usu / Sarobetsu post-mined peatland
From left: Crater basin in 1986 and 2006. Cottongrass / Daylily
HOME > Lecture catalog / Research summary > Glossary > Introduction to natural sciences
Natural scienceA branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena → natural philosophy
biology (or biological science) Citizen science, CS (市民科学)= community science, crowd science, crowd-sourced science, civic science and volunteer monitoringDef. scientific research conducted, in whole or in part, by nonprofessional and/or amateur scientists European Commission. 2013. Green Paper on Citizen Science |
[ Logics ] BioBlitz or bioblitzcounting species through citizen sciencea snapshot of the living species of a given natural area which allows the scientific community to learn more about biodiversity richness and health |
Ancient Greece (古代ギリシア)BC600- meridian of ancient Greek civilization→ forming the foundation of western philosophy, science and ethic tried to explain the world in terms of natural sciences that place emphasis on materialist philosophy → history of natural sciences↔ ideological philosophy that places emphasis on idea (sensu Plato) that is as non-materialist eidos Ionian/Milesian School (イオニア学派)Thales of Miletus (BC624?-546): merchant (chapman)/pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and mathematician
patriarch of western philosophy (Milesian) Ex. measured the height of pyramids doxastic that the water is the arche (universal principle on all of the nature, 動力因) Anaximandros (Eng. Anaximander, BC c. 610-BC546): pupil of ThalesThe apeiron (= indefinite, infinite, boundless or unlimited) is the arche (= eternal and ageless) → diverse substances are born from the metamorphosis of aperion
the Earth = cylindrical form Helakleitos (Eng. Heraclitus, BC c. 535- BC c. 470/475): fire is the arche everything flows → all things come into being by conflict of opposites Ex. soul = the mixture of fire and water Anaxagoras (BC c. 500-BC c. 428)Cosmic mind (Nous, ≈ mind ヌース/理性): arranging all other things in the cosmos in their proper order, started them in a rotating motion, and controlling them somehow, having a strong connection with living things
all substances can be divided infinitely into atoms Summarizing Ionian philosophy: all things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form BC480 Battle of SalamisEleatic (エレア学派)differences between the thoughts of ideology and materialism became clearlyPythagoras of Samos (BC582-BC493/497, aged around 75), southern Italy
the spherical land, earth and universe with antipodes → sphere is the most perfect solid → systematization of numbers Ex. prime number → Pythagorean (ピタゴラス学派)having an overtone of religious meanings
the forms are more important than the components to explain the structures of matter
difficulties in finding out discoverers becasue of the esoterica
it was known about 1000 years before the report Ex. proved that there are only five regular solids, n = 4 (regular tetrahedron), 6 (regular hexahedron), 8 (regular octahedron), 12 (regular dodecahedron), and 20 (regular icosahedron) regular polygons exist ad infinitum Parmenides of Elea (BC500/475-?): founded Eleatic schoolOn nature (a poem): Thought and being are the same
the movements and substances are likely to be seen as an existence → founder of metaphysics or ontology
paradox of the runner (走者の逆理) Empedokles (Eng. Empedocles, aged ≈ 60, BC c. 490-BC c. 430)materialistic interpretation = the facts (of life) are permanent → the everlastingness is formed accidentally by binding the four elements (arche): water, earth, air and fire
origin of life = abiogenesis (自然発生説) |
Leukippos (date of birth and death unknown, active in BC440-BC430) Demokritos (Eng.Democritus, BC c. 460-370?): the peak of materialism
atomism: the diverse morphology of substances is determined by the sizes and/or arrangements of atoms that are the composition elements of substances philosophy of Sophists, including Protagoras, active in BC5 c were influenced greatly by the atomism Epikouros (Eng. Epicurus, BC341-BC270)Protagoras (BC c. 490-BC c. 420) Sophist as teacher for hire, Man is the measure of all things = there is no absolute truth, but that which individuals deem to be the truth → the purpose of life is material success rather than truth (veritas) Hippokrates (BC460?-370?): doctor in the ancient Greek
patriarch of medical science → medical treatments proposed by observations and experiences → ethic of medical doctor (bioethics) the thought is a contrast to the thought of sophist Greek philosophy was the peak under him
Socratic method (elenchus): a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions → transgression (culpa) = ignorance (darkness)
Socratic irony: the dissimulation of ignorance as a means of confuting an adversary solving doubling the cube (立方体倍積問題) Theodoros (BC410?-): mathmathics professor of PlatonAthenai (アテナイ)BC431-404: the Peloponnesian warGreek - lost the political power Platon (Eng. Plato, BC427-BC347): Timaeus (on the nature)
theory of forms or theory of ideas (イデア論) - systemized Socratic idealism
virtus (virtue, 善): something spiritual beyond all the feeling Plato's tripartite theory of soul psyche = logical (logistykon) + spirited (thymoeides) + appetitive (epithymetikon) The Academy (Platonism, プラトン学派) Arkithas (Eng. Archytas, BC428-BC347)Theaitetos (BC415-369): math. proven that only five types of regular bodies are present Eudoxos (BC409-355), astronomer, mathematician
proportion, sectional mensuration (区分求積法)
pupil of Plato, pedagogue of the Great Alexander → The birth of 3-4 shcools that are materialism and individualisticThe schools of Greek philosophy (ギリシア哲学学派) Eudemos (BC320?-): geometryTheophrates (BC372-287/288) "Historia Plantarum", "De cauris plantarum"(「石について」) Aristarchos (BC 310?-230?)hypothesis that the center of the world is sun = heliocentricism (地動説) Euclid, or Eukleides (BC300-?): Euclidean geometryArchimedes (BC287-212) principle of Archimedes (= principle of buoyancy) Apollonios Pergaeus (BC260-200?)Aristarchos (BC280?) Eratosteres (BC275-194, or BC237-197, or 236-194) Hipparchos BC150? Heron BC100? Menelaus BC100? Galenos 129-199 or 131-201: Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher "On the Elements According to Hippocrates" |
The Dark Ages Fibonacci (alias), Leonardo da Pisa 1170-1250 "Liber Abaci": introduced Indian-Arabic mathematics, numeration, calculation, etc. Roger Bacon 1214-1294experimental sicence (sprout of modern science) Oresme Nicole 1323-1382 Stifel Michael 1486-1567: "Arithmetica integra"Gunter Edmund 1581-1626 Abel Niels Henrik 1802-1829 |
Bernoulli, Jacques 1654-1705: one of the Bernoulli Family
1/12 + 1/22 + 1/32 + … → convergence Bernoulli, Jean 1667-1748: Farther of DanielBernoulli, Daniel 1700-1812, Switzerland (born in Holland) mathematics and physics Euler Leonhard 1707-1783Cauchy Augustine Louis 1789-1856: series 1831: complex number |
Copernicus, Nicolaus 1473-1543 (Poland), mathematician and astronomer
1543 a model of the universe - the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe (地動説) developed independently from Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310-c.230BC) Bruno, Giordano 1548-1600(stake) (Italy), Dominican friar and osmological theorist1584 cosmic pluralism: stars are distant suns surrounded by their own planets, infinite universe |
industrial revolution → philosophy revolution |
Röntgen, Wilhelm Konrad 1845-1923, Germany: research on capillarity, etc.
1895 Discovered X-ray: the unit (roentgen) of X-ray, γ-ray is derived from his name Antoine Henri Becquerel 1852-1908, Grandfahter of Becuqerel AC
1896 discovered the radioactivity of uranium (U) Fahter of Alexandre Edmond Becquerel(1820-1891) Curie, Pierre (1859-1906, France): Novel Physics Prize (1903)Curie, Marie (1867-1934, France, born in Poland): Novel Physics Prize (1903)、Novel Chemistry Prize (1911) the unit of radioactivity, curie (Ci), is from Mr. and Mrs. Curie Thomson (1856-1940, England)1897 cathode rays (陰極線) = flow of electron (電子) emerged from the atom Rutherford, Ernest (1871-1937)
Rutherford scattering (ラザフォード散乱) = repulsion force (反発力) α-ray (alpha ray, α線): +charge = 4He (alpha particle, α-粒子) Periodic table (周期表)= periodicity table, periodic law table, periodic system1789 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent (1743-1794) list of 33 elements 1815 Prout, William (Scotland)atomic weights seemed to be multiples of that of hydrogen (H) 1817 Döbereiner, Johann Wolfgang
tried to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements Li-Na-K, Cl-Br-I, Ca-Sr-Ba, S-Se-Te 1858 Cannizzaro (1826-1910, Italy)embryo stage of atomic hypothesis and molecule hypothesis 1862 Béguyer de Chancourtois, Alexandre-Emile (France, geologist)the elements, when ordered by their atomic weights, displayed similar properties at regular intervals 1863 Newlands, John (England)the law of octaves: divided the then discovered 56 elements into 11 groups, based on the characteristics 1864 Odling, William (1829-1921, England)the proportional numbers of the elements 1869 Meyer, Julius Lothar 1830-1895, Germany____ Mendeleev, Dimitri Ivanovich 1834-1907, Russia
independently published
argon (Ar) (noble gas or rare gas, 希ガス) was discovered ![]() |
A/B = subgroups A and B, respectively Group 0 or 18 element = inert gas (不活性ガス)He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn Group 1 element (一族元素) ≈ alkali(ne) metal (アルカリ金属) Valence electron = 1 A: (H) Li Na K Rb Cs Fr Group 2 element ≈ alkaline-earth metal (アルカリ土類金属, s.l.) Valence electron = 2 A: (Be) (Mg) Ca Sr Ba Ra
Be, Mg = mangesium group (マグネシウム族) Group 3 element ⊂ transition element (遷移元素) A: Sc B: B Al Ga + rare earth (希土類) = Sc Y from 57La to 71Lu + 89-103 Group 4 element ⊂ transition element Titanium subgroup = Ti Zr Hf Rf = Plumbum or lead subgroup = C Si Ge Sn Pb Group 5 element = vanadium group A: V Nb Ta B: N P As Sb Bi Group 6 element ≈ chromium element ⊂ transition element A: Cr Mo W B: O S Se Te Group 7 or 17 element A: Mn Tc Re Bh B: F Cl Br I At Ts (halogen ハロゲン, X) Group 8 or 16 element = chalcogen or oxygen element O S Se Te Po (S Se Te = sulfur element) Law. Oddo-Harkins law or rule (オッド‐ハーキンスの法則) ![]() An element with an even atomic number (e.g., C = 6) is more abundant than both elements with the adjacently larger and smaller odd atomic numbers (B = 5 and N = 7) Isotope (同位体)Stable isotope (安定同位体)Isotopologue (同位体分子種)
Element = Σisotopologue (abundance, %): δ range in ‰
they generally have equal chemical properties heavier isotopic molecules have
lower mobility ⇒ application to biogeochemical cycle |
need to cooperate with field experiments and lab-experiments |
How do we approach the field science?
method: principles of mechanical reductionism vs wholism in environmental science, wholism is major because the study deals with significance or fatal problems on human and other living things, i.e., the total phenomena of studies in fields. |
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Global warming (地球温暖化)→ Introcution to global warming→ Ecology and global warming Ultraviolet (ozone hole)→ Ozone depletion and the effects of UV radiation |
[ philosopher ]
philos (Gr. to love or to befriend) + sophia (Gr. wisdom) → love of wisdom = search for wisdom |
Representative scholastic in the 11th-12th centuriesAnselmus, Cantuariensis (アンセルムス), 1033?-1109
1093–1109 Archbishop of Canterbury the auctores of nominalism (唯名論, via moderna) Rucelinus or Roscellinus, Compendiensis (ロスケリヌス), 1050?-1125?
the auctores of nominalism
Judaic thinker and philosopher, physicist and rabbi of Jew |
Ferdinand de Saussure (ソシュール, 1857-1913, France)
Comparative methodology (比較方法論)Four heavenly kings of structuralismLevi-Strauss, Claude (レヴィ=ストロース, 1908-1992, France)
structural anthropology, original of structuralism
psychoanalyzation |
Foucault, Michel (フーコー, 1926-1984, France)
historical science
Marxist philosophy |
What qualifies as science ⇒ concerned with the foundations, methods and implications of science
metaphysics (形而上学) |