Natural science

biology (or biological science)
↓↑ chemistry
physics (or physical science)
geoscience (or earth science)

Citizen science, CS (市民科学)

European Commission. 2013. Green Paper on Citizen Science

[ Logics | History ]

BioBlitz or bioblitz

a snapshot of the living species of a given natural area which allows the scientific community to learn more about biodiversity richness and health

Primitive society (原始社会) or primeval time (太古)

Cosmic view

astronomy = astrology → constellation (BC 3000)

BC 8c: 36 asterisms drawn on clay tablets

combine decimal and sexagesimal: 1 year = 360 days → circumference
sequence (数列)

Ancient Greece (古代ギリシア)

→ forming the foundation of western philosophy, science and ethic

↔ ideological philosophy that places emphasis on idea (sensu Plato) that is as non-materialist eidos

Ionian/Milesian School (イオニア学派)

patriarch of western philosophy (Milesian)
the father of Greek mathematics
Seven Sages of Greece

Ex. measured the height of pyramids

doxastic that the water is the arche (universal principle on all of the nature, 動力因)

The apeiron (= indefinite, infinite, boundless or unlimited) is the arche (= eternal and ageless)

diverse substances are born from the metamorphosis of aperion

the Earth = cylindrical form
evolutionary view of living things → primitive organisms emerged from mad and human originating from fish-like organisms

everything flows → all things come into being by conflict of opposites

Ex. soul = the mixture of fire and water

Cosmic mind (Nous, ≈ mind ヌース/理性): arranging all other things in the cosmos in their proper order, started them in a rotating motion, and controlling them somehow, having a strong connection with living things

all substances can be divided infinitely into atoms
S ∝ r²
the area of circle (S) is proportional to the square of raidus (r)

Summarizing Ionian philosophy: all things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form

Eleatic (エレア学派)

the spherical land, earth and universe with antipodes → sphere is the most perfect solid
→ celestial motion (天体運動) → circular motion
all things are numbers (万物は数である)

→ systematization of numbers Ex. prime number

having an overtone of religious meanings

the forms are more important than the components to explain the structures of matter
→ the soul is the most important → body = the grave of soul

difficulties in finding out discoverers becasue of the esoterica
Ex. the Pythagorean (ピタゴラスの定理)

it was known about 1000 years before the report
Pythagorean triples: c² = a² + b² → a, b and c exist

Ex. proved that there are only five regular solids, n = 4 (regular tetrahedron), 6 (regular hexahedron), 8 (regular octahedron), 12 (regular dodecahedron), and 20 (regular icosahedron)

regular polygons exist ad infinitum

On nature (a poem): Thought and being are the same

the movements and substances are likely to be seen as an existence

→ founder of metaphysics or ontology

• Pythagoras and Parmenides established the foundation of ideology that characterized the late Greek philosophy

paradox of Zenon (ゼノンの逆理)

atomism: the diverse morphology of substances is determined by the sizes and/or arrangements of atoms that are the composition elements of substances
materialism is daily applied

philosophy of Sophists, including Protagoras, active in BC5 c were influenced greatly by the atomism

Hedonism (快楽主義): the only thing that is intrinsically valuable is one's own pleasure

pleasure must be persistent

the basic constituents are atoms - uncuttable bits of matter

Sophist as teacher for hire, Man is the measure of all things

= there is no absolute truth, but that which individuals deem to be the truth

→ the purpose of life is material success rather than truth (veritas)

patriarch of medical science → medical treatments proposed by observations and experiences → ethic of medical doctor (bioethics)
human body consists of four types of fluids (black bile, blood, yellow bile and mucus) → disease when they are unbalanced

the thought is a contrast to the thought of sophist

Greek philosophy was the peak under him

Socratic method (elenchus): a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions
soul - most important for human

→ transgression (culpa) = ignorance (darkness)

Socratic irony: the dissimulation of ignorance as a means of confuting an adversary
I know that I know nothing

solving doubling the cube (立方体倍積問題)

Athenai (アテナイ)

Greek - lost the political power

virtus (virtue, 善): something spiritual beyond all the feeling
idea: the material world as it seems to us is not the real world, but only an "image" or "copy" of the real world
the apparent world of forms (constantly changes) ↔ an unchanging and unseen world (probably the cause of what is apparent)

Categoriae, De Interpretatione, Analytica Priora, Analytica Posteriora, Topica and De Sophisticis Elenchis

The birth of 3-4 schools that are materialism and individualistic

The schools of Greek philosophy (ギリシア哲学学派)

"Historia Plantarum", "De cauris plantarum"(「石について」)

280? the center of the world is sun = heliocentricism (地動説)

Europe

experimental sicence (sprout of modern science)

(Switzerland), Catholic
denied humorism (or humoralism) - archaeus (archeus)
syphilis - epidemic in Europe in the end of 15th cenctury

treatment with ferric oxide and mercury

Deism = develped from static creationism

a model of the universe - the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe
developed independently from Aristarchus

1584 cosmic pluralism: stars are distant suns surrounded by their own planets, infinite universe

idea about heliocentric theory

galaxy = a cluster of stars / discovered 4 satellites of Jupiter

⇒ supported Copernican theory → suspension of publication due to the inquisition

God wrote two books, the Bible as well as the Book of Nature

1827 discovered Ohm's law

1895 Discovered X-ray: the unit (roentgen) of X-ray, γ-ray is derived from his name

1819 pressure induces electricity in every material
1825 differential galvanometer measuring electrical resistance
1829 a constant-current electrochemical cell

1839 Becquerel effect = the photovoltaic effect

on an electrode immersed in a conductive liquid
(discovered with Becquerel AC)

1896 discovered the radioactivity of uranium (U)
the start point was the rejected hypothesis of the essence of X-ray

1898 discovered polonium (Po) and radium (Ra)
1900 β-ray = high-speed electron

cathode rays (陰極線) = flow of electron emerged from the atom

Rutherford scattering (ラザフォード散乱) = repulsion force (反発力)
1899 radioactive ray emerged from radioactive element (放射性元素)

at least two types = α-ray, β-ray

1908 α-ray = helium ion (+)
1914 γ-ray = short-waved electromagnetic waves

radioactive ray = three types: α, β, γ-rays

α-ray (alpha ray, α線): +charge = ⁴He (alpha particle, α-粒子)

developed Geiger counter (計数管)

Wilson cloud chamber (霧箱)
1907 basic principles  1911 practical equipment

⇒ possible to measure the trajectories of atoms and electrons by the cloud chamber and counter

(Seerri 2011)

Periodic table (周期表)

list of 33 elements

atomic weights seemed to be multiples of that of hydrogen (H)

tried to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements
1829 triads (三組元素): some of the elements into groups of three, with the members of each group having related properties

Li-Na-K, Cl-Br-I, Ca-Sr-Ba, S-Se-Te

embryo stage of atomic hypothesis and molecule hypothesis

the elements, when ordered by their atomic weights, displayed similar properties at regular intervals

the law of octaves: divided the then discovered 56 elements into 11 groups, based on the characteristics

the proportional numbers of the elements

independently published
63 elements were already-known →
the seats of unknown elements were blank - the properties were predicted

argon (Ar) (noble gas or rare gas, 希ガス) was discovered
→ revision of periodic table

A/B = subgroups A and B, respectively

Be, Mg = mangesium group (マグネシウム族)
Ca-Ra = alkaline-earth metal (アルカリ土類金属, s.s.)

An element with an even atomic number (e.g., C = 6) is more abundant than both elements with the adjacently larger and smaller odd atomic numbers (B = 5 and N = 7)

Isotope (同位体)

Stable isotope (安定同位体)

Isotopologue (同位体分子種)

Element = Σisotopologue (abundance, %): δ range in ‰
H = ¹H (99.9844) + ²H (D) (0.0156): D/H = 700
O = ¹⁶O (99.763) + ¹⁷O (0.0375) + ¹⁸O (0.1995): ¹⁸O/¹⁶O = 100
C = ¹²C (98.89) + ¹³C (1.11): ¹³C/¹²C = 100
N = ¹⁴N (99.64) + ¹⁵N (0.36): ¹⁵N/¹⁴N = 50
S = ³²S (95.02) + ³³S (0.75) + ³⁴S (4.21) + ³⁶S (0.02): ³⁴S/³²S = 100

they generally have equal chemical properties
their mass differences confer different physical properties

heavier isotopic molecules have

lower mobility
stronger binding energy
fewer collisions
lower diffusion energy

⇒ application to biogeochemical cycle

Method (方法)

way to reach something - recognition of nature "how it should be (being, 存在)"

demonstrative (論証的) ⇔ factual (empirical) 実証的
deductive (演繹的) ⇔ inductive (帰納的)
speculative (思弁的) ⇔ experimental (実験的)

the law of uniformity of nature

nature behaves in the same way under same conditions

the law of causation

every event has a cause

→ law (法則, s.l.)
実証主義positivism ≈ justificationism (正当化主義)

→ falsification (反証)

PPDAC

Exploratory research (探索的研究)

☛ research ethics

Ideology (イデオロギー)

Representative scholastic in the 11th-12th centuries

1093–1109 Archbishop of Canterbury
the father of scholasticism: ontological argument (神の本体論的/存在論的存在証明)

the auctores of nominalism (唯名論, via moderna)

the auctores of nominalism
tritheism

Judaic thinker and philosopher, physicist and rabbi of Jew
tried to synchronize between the spark of God in Jew and Aristotelian philosophy, by using the methods similar with Christian scholasticism

English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, apologist and Catholic theologian

Occam's razor (オッカムの剃刀)

• entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity

the French Enlightenment (啓蒙思想)

pleasure = hapiness
Fundamental axiom: it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong

it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied

Existentialism (実存主義)
1938 Existenzphilosophie (1971 Philosophy of Existence)
1948 Der philosophische Glaube 「哲学的信仰」

Marxism (マルクス主義)

Linguistics (logology, 言語学)

Theory of linguistic relativity (言語的相対論)

the particular language one speaks influences the way one thinks about reality
language → influencing culture

Comparative methodology (比較方法論)

structural anthropology, original of structuralism
1930-1039 Brazil
1940-1949 New York
1955 Tristes Tropiques 「悲しき南回帰線」
1962 La pensée sauvage「野生の思考」
1964-1972 Les mythologiques「神話論理」

psychoanalyzation
return to Freud
proposed three orders: imaginary - symbolic - real

historical science
1961 L'Histoire de la folie à l'àge classique「狂気の歴史」
1969 L'Archéologie du savoir「知の考古学」
1975 Surveiller et punir, naissance de la prison ｢監獄の誕生｣

Marxist philosophy
1965 Pour Marx 「マルクスのために」
1965 Lire le Capital 「資本論を読む, Reading Capital」

metaphysics (形而上学)
ontology (存在論)
epistemology (認識論)