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Mount Usu / Sarobetsu post-mined peatland
From left: Crater basin in 1986 and 2006. Cottongrass / Daylily
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[plant taxonomy 植物分類学|Engler's syllabus エングラー体系]
[alga 藻類|mosses 蘚苔類|fungi 菌類]
The divergence of modern taxonomical groups (mostly divisions), based on the assumption of the origin of common ancestor. |
Angiospermae 2-300,000 spp Variety: region - size |
mammal | aves | reptile | amphibia | vascular | plant | ||||||||
region | area × 104 km2) | islands or continent | forest (%) | spp | end | rpr | end | spp | end | spp | end | spp | end |
Japan | 37 | islands | 68% | 188 | 22% | 250 | 8% | 87 | 38% | 61 | 74% | 5,565 | 36% |
Indonesisa | 182 | islands | 60% | 457 | 49% | 1,530 | 27% | 514 | 59% | 285 | 40% | 29,375 | 60% |
Malaysia | 33 | islands | 45% | 300 | 12% | 508 | 4% | 350 | 20% | 189 | 37% | 15,500 | 23% |
Philippines | 30 | islands | 23% | 158 | 65% | 196 | 95% | 190 | 84% | 92 | 79% | 8,931 | 39% |
Singapore | 0.06 | islands | 7% | 85 | 1% | 118 | 0% | 140 | 0% | 24 | 0% | 2,282 | 0% |
Sri Lanka | 6 | islands | 33% | 88 | 17% | 250 | 10% | 144 | 53% | 39 | 51% | 3,314 | 27% |
Bangladesh | 13 | continent | 8% | 109 | 0% | 295 | 0% | 119 | 2% | 19 | 0% | 5,000 | - |
Bhutan | 5 | continent | 60% | 99 | 0% | 448 | 0% | 19 | 11% | 24 | 0% | 5,446 | 1% |
Cambodia | 18 | continent | 56% | 123 | 0% | 307 | 0% | 82 | 1% | 28 | 0% | - | - |
China | 933 | continent | 14% | 400 | 21% | 1,103 | 6% | 340 | 24% | 290 | 54% | 32,200 | 56% |
India | 297 | continent | 22% | 316 | 14% | 926 | 6% | 390 | 48% | 209 | 58% | 16,000 | 31% |
North Korea | 12 | continent | 50% | - | - | 115 | 1% | 19 | 11% | 14 | 14% | 2,898 | 4% |
South Korea | 10 | continent | 80% | 49 | 0% | 112 | 0% | 25 | 4% | 14 | 0% | 2,898 | 8% |
Laos | 23 | continent | 52% | 172 | 0% | 487 | 0% | 66 | 2% | 37 | 5% | - | - |
Mongolia | 157 | continent | 6% | 133 | 0% | 426 | 0% | 22 | 0% | 6 | 0% | 2,823 | 8% |
Myanmar | 66 | continent | 41% | 251 | 2% | 867 | 0% | 203 | 18% | 75 | 13% | 7,000 | 15% |
Nepal | 14 | continent | 36% | 181 | 1% | 611 | 0% | 100 | 1% | 43 | 26% | 6,973 | 5% |
Pakistan | 77 | continent | 3% | 151 | 3% | 375 | 0% | 172 | 13% | 17 | 24% | 4,950 | 8% |
Thailand | 51 | continent | 24% | 265 | 3% | 616 | 0% | 298 | 12% | 112 | 19% | 11,625 | - |
Vietnam | 33 | continent | 27% | 213 | 4% | 535 | 2% | 187 | 25% | 80 | 34% | 10,500 | 12% |
Russian Federation | 1,689 | continent | 45% | 269 | 8% | 628 | 2% | 58 | 0% | 41 | 0% | - | - |
Europe (reference) | |||||||||||||
England | 24 | islands | 8% | 50 | 0% | 230 | 0% | 8 | 0% | 7 | 0% | 1,623 | 1% |
Finland | 30 | continent | 67% | 60 | 0% | 248 | 0% | 5 | 0% | 5 | 0% | 1,102 | - |
France | 55 | continent | 27% | 93 | 0% | 269 | 0% | 32 | 3% | 32 | 9% | 4,630 | 3% |
Germany | 35 | continent | 31% | 76 | 0% | 239 | 0% | 12 | 0% | 20 | 0% | 2,632 | 0% |
Italy | 29 | continent | 22% | 90 | 3% | 234 | 0% | 40 | 3% | 41 | 29% | 5,599 | 13% |
Spain | 50 | continent/ islands | 16% | 82 | 5% | 278 | 2% | 53 | 21% | 28 | 14% | 5,050 | 19% |
Units being classified | Sphere in which applicable | |
Taxonomic species (分類学的種) | Taxa; groups of morphologically similar individuals | Groups with morphological differences that are useful in formal classification |
Biological species (生物学的種) | Sexually reproducing population systems | Sexual organisms on a single time level |
Successional species (遷移種) | Phyletic lineages | Uniparental organisms, including asexual and parasexual organisms |
Biosystematic species (系統学的種) | Fertility groups | Sexual plant groups which have been artificially hybridized in the experimental garden |
Good species (良い種)One taxonomic species = one biological speciesSeveral taxonomic species = one biological species Several taxonomic species = syngameon (sunsu Grant 1981) Table. Biological species and stage of diversgence. Local race Population level, or variety Geographical race Subspecies or variety Allopatric semispecies Taxonomic species Sympatric semispecies Taxonomic species of hybrid origin Taxonomic species Allopatric biological species Taxonomic species Sympatric biological species Taxonomic species Species gorup Series Syngameon Series, or section Character (形質)phylogeny (= natural classification)
genetics – micro-evolution (Maekawa 1950) Characters in multifaceted nature (多面性の形質)= characters that reflect the phylesis1. structure of flaggella (鞭毛構造)
Ex. Phycomycetes (藻菌類)
Basidiomycetes (担子菌): basidiospore, dicaryon
Chytridiales (ツボカビ類): uniflagellate flaggella (単毛) → the common character in Phycomycetes is only noncellular structrue 2. chemical structural components in cell wall3. assimilatory pigment → assimilates 4. formation mode and behavior of reproductive cells
Ex. Rhizophydium (Zygomycetes)________♀: transfer of cell contents |
ascogonium (造嚢器) / antheridium (造卵器) → trichogyne (受精毛) → ascogenous hypha (造嚢糸), forming 2n → forming ascus (担子器) Ex. biosynthesis of lysin – two pathways (Vögel 1960) AAA-pathway: α-KG acid + CH3COO-Coenzyme A → L-α-aminoadaphic δ-semialdehyde → lysin bacteria, cyanophyta, green algae, dichonomycetes DAP-pathway: L-asparatic-α-semialdehyde + pyruvic acid → L-α-ε-diamino pimelic acid → lysin Phycomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes → dichonomycetes is essentially different from the other fungal taxa Characters in tendency (偏向性の形質)1. number of flagella (鞭毛数)2. life phase (生活相) Ex. life phase (Maekawa 1947) – considered as interfacial film
1. virus phase
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Character displacement (形質置換)Fig. Character displacement inferred from character states in sympatry (同所) and allopatry (異所) (Grant 1972). Ex. Drosophilla pavlistrum complex
allopatry ___________sympatry Ex. Litoria ewingii vs L. verreauxi differences in sounds (or calls) Ex. Phlox
____________allopatry sympatry Varation (変異)1942 Mayer E: Geographycal race (≈ ecotype)relationships of distribution between relative species: sympatric vs allopatric 1949, 1963 Anderson E: Introgressive hybridization
introgressive genes to different race(s) in allopatric region(s), due to geological factors, etc. 1963 Anderson 1963: Introgression = hybridization of habitatsSummary individuals [genes] → local population (forma) [genes, chromosome] → ecotype (variety) [genes, chromosome] → ecospecies (species) → coenospecies (species) → comparium (species or genus) ramet (ラメート): all shoots have the same genotype Ex. populations propagated by division = one clone Evolutional entities (or units)
individuals Race (レース)Geographical racescontinuous geographical race – inappropriate because race is discontinuousdisjunctive gegographical race Ex. Gilia latifolia (continuous distribution), G. leptantha (disjunctive) – sympatric = can breed between the races |
ecological (geograpical) race
Ex. savanna, slope of alpine zone
Sun races: large flower – pollinator = insect (Huxley 1938) Cline (クライン)Ex. Chenopodium rubrum (Cumming 1963)
34.3°N 50.2°N 60.8°N 62.8°N
also observed on cultivated plants Selection factors on race formation1922 Turesson: race is classified into two types:
1. adaptation to major environmental factors in a given habitat
Ex. Geum, Potentilla, Campanula, etc. → edaphic factor / biotic factor Isolation mechanisms (隔離機構)Table 2.1. classification of isolation types1 Geographical isolation (地理的隔離) 2 Ecological isolation (生態的隔離) 3 Reproductive isolation (生殖的隔離)
a) Seasonal isolation
1-3c: External isolation or premating isolation *: mechanical isolation, ethological isolation Semi-species (半種)1. progressive branching (漸進的分岐) Ex. Catalpa bignoides (USA), C. ovata (China)Ex. Pleatnus racemosa (California), P. wrightii (Arizona)
→ convenient when treated as taxonomic species
Fig. Overlapping rings a. hybridized group
semi-sepcies drived by semi-species: Ex. Geum rivale × G. urbanum, Aquilegia formosa × A. pubescens
Iris hexagona var. giganticaerulea × I. fulva Ecological species (生態種)Ecotype (エコタイプ) ≈ ecospecies (生態種)Same species with different characters along environmental gradientProduct arising as a result of the response of the genotype of an organism to the particular habitat in which it lives. For example, Plantago maritima has a height of about 17.5 cm in waterlogged mud and 56 cm in fertile meadow. Cf. phenotpye plasticity Ecocline (エコクライン)consisting of ecotypes that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences along environmental gradientsIsozyme (アイソザイム)= enzyme gene or isoenzymeallozyme = allelic isozyme multiple gene = non-allelic isozyme |
Def. the offspring resulting from combining the qualities of two organisms of different taxa through sexual reproduction Ancient Greek Aristoteles: consider the presence of hybrid discussed in "De Generatione Animalium (Generation of animals)" 1761 Kölreuter, Joseph Gottlieb (1733-1806)
plant hybridization experiments - confirmed the hybrids Intraspecific hybrid (種内雑種)progeny between the same species but different infraspecific taxaInterspecific, interspecies or species hybrid (種間雑種)progeny from the mating of individuals from different species
Ex. mule (ラバ) = ♂donky × ♀horse |
☛ breed improvement (品種改良): breeding, embryology 1780 Spallanzani: intraspecific hybridization conducted using dogs 1776 Hunter, John (1728-1793, England), anatomist firstly reported successful artificial insemination 1907 Ivanov, Ll'ya Ivanovich (1834-1901): applyed to livestock sciencehorse hybridization → cow, sheep, etc. Animal and plantMutatiionX-ray
1949 γ-field (Brookhaven National Laboratory, USA) Breed improvement (品種改良)AnimalArtificial insemination1952 Polge & Rowson: established cryopreservation of bovine semen PlantsArtificial pollinationGrafting (接木) Tissue culture (組織培養) ☛ Daucus carota (ニンジン) |