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(Upload on March 30 2019) [ 日本語 | English ]

Forest type (森林型)

On the global scale, forest types are classifed by temperature and precipitation. However, classification systems are not unified.

Tropical forest (熱帯林)	4	Boreal forest
The background of plantation for conducting agroforestry is a natural rainforest at Los Banos. Philippines. The dominant species are tall, evergreen broad-leaved trees. When precipitation decreases, the forest changes to seasonal forest.	It is often the same with deciduous (borad-leaved) forest. Check tree species in Hokkaido, Japan. In Hokkaido, mixed forest with evergreen needle-leaved and decidous broad-leaved trees is also found.	Boreal forest is taiga, or includes southerly part of taiga. Taiga is characterized by needle-leaved trees, such as Picea mariana in Alaska and Larix gmelinii in eastern Siberia. Permafrost is related to the distribution patterns of taiga. (Photo: a wildfire occurring in P. mariana forest)

Tropical forest Distribution of tropical forests in the world Persebaran Kawasan Hutan Tropis di Dunia Subropical forest Temperate forest Laurentian mixed forest (ローレンシアン混交林) = North Woods (one of the forest ecoregions) temperate broadleaved and mixed forests biome transition zone between the boreal forest and the Big Woods and Carolinian forest Conifers: pines, spruces, firs and junipers Deciduous trees: aspens, paper birches mountain ash and maples distributed in eastern North America most of the region was covered by glaciers during the last ice age

Boreal forest (冷温帯林) Fig. Vegetation change in Siberian taiga Timber line: boundary of forest and forest-less zones Tree line: boundary of tree and tree-less zones = similar with Japanese subalpine zone Altitudinal vegetation zonation patterns are similar with latitudinal patterns → the causes of differences in vegetation between them

Mixed forest (針広混交森林)

Mixed forest or boreo-nemoral transitional forest

The forest develops tween temperate broad-leaved and subarctic needle-leaved forests.

1 2
[1/2] between Jozankei and Nakayama Pass, Sapporo, on October 9 2010. The red and yellow leaves are from deciduous broad-leaved trees, and the green leaves are from evergreen needle-leaved trees.

Forest classification for forestry (林学上の森林分類)

artificial forest or man-made forest (人工林)
natural forest (天然林)

primeval forest (原生林, 原始林)

naturally-regenerated forest (天然生林)

Jomon forest (縄文の森)

The temperetures were hiher in the middle Jomon Era (ca 6300 years ago) than in the present. The southern part of Hokkaido, including Kita-Kogane region (Date City) was covered with the lush vevgetaion of deciduous broad-leaved trees. Trees Quercus mongolica var. grosseserrata, Quercus dentata, Aesculus turbinata, Betula platyphylla var. japonica、Betula maximowicziana、Fraxinus mandshurica, Ulmus davidiana var. japonica, Ulmus laciniata, Magnolia kobus var. borealis, Magnolia obovata, Sorbus commixta, Sorbus alnifolia, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Tilia japonica, Callicarpa japonica, Euonymus oxyphyllus, Euonymus sieboldianus, Sambucus racemosa ssp. kamtschatica, Acer amoenum, Acer mono var. mono, Elaeagnus umbellata, Prunus sargentii, Morus bombycis, Kalopanax pictus, Aralia elata, Juglans mandshurica var. sieboldiana, Viburnum opulus var. calvescens, Hydrangea serrata var. yesoensis, Actinidia arguta f. platyphylla, Actinidia polygama, Vitis coignetiae, Zanthoxylum piperitum, etc. Herbs Taraxacum venustum, Erythronium japonicum, Paeonia japonica, Lilium cordatum var. glehnii, Trillium apetalon, Corydalis incisa, Corydalis ambigua, Anemone pseudoaltaica, Chloranthus japonicus, Polygonatum odoratum var. maximowiczii, Arisaema serratum, Lysichiton camtschatcensis, Symplocarpus renifolius, Caltha palustris var. barthei, Lythrum salicaria, etc.

Early Jomon (≈ BP9000)

Wahington State [ plant species | wetland vegetation ]

Forest zones of the Cascades

Forest zones west of the Cascades

Life   Species               Wet Moist Dry Seral Comments
form

Trees  Picea sitchensis*           x             Climax
       Tsuga heterophylla*         x             Climax
       Thuja plicata           x
       Pseudotsuga menziesii             x   x
       Pinus contorta                    x   x
       Alnus rubra             x             x   Riparian
       Acer macrophyllum       x                 Riparian
Shrubs Acer circinatum         x   x         x
       Oplopanax horridum*     x
       Gaultheria shallon*               x   x
       Vaccinium ovatum*                 x
       V. parviolium*                        x
       Sambucus racemosa                     x
       Rubus spectabilis*      x             x
Herbs  Polystichum munitum*        x     x
       Oxalis oregana*             x
       Blechnum spicant*       x   x
       Maianthemum dilatatum       x
       Montia sibirica             x         x   Disturbance
       Tiarella trifoliata         x
       Viola sempervirens          x
       V. glabella                 x
       Athyrium filix-femina*  x   x
       Cornus unalaschkensis   x	x
       Lysichitum americanum   x
       Carex obnupta           x

Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) forest zone

This zone is moist and warm. It is ideal for the growth of trees. Dense stands of Douglas-fir invade following catastrophic wildfires. These stands include lesser amounts of red alder, western recedar, bigleaf maple and western hemlock. Without further disturbance the Douglas-fir is replaced by western hemlock after many centuries. This zone resonds most favorably to most management activities. It provides considerable quantities of timber and is of vital importance for many wildlife species and for high quality watersheds.

Distribution: This is widely distributed in lowland western Washington, below about 900 m, including Puget Sound and lower Cascades, Mt. Rainier, etc., grading into other zones at higher elevation.
Elevation range: near sea level to over 1000 m in western Washington; higher in drier areas, lower in wetter areas; snow depth accumulation may control upper distributional limit.
Climate: wet, mild, maritime climate with about 200 cm a typical amount; 10% falls during summer. Frosts common, with heavy snow at the higher elevations.
Soil: profiles deep, moderately acid, organic matter moderate to high, with deep litter common due to relatively slow decomposition; a variety of soil types including haplohumults (reddish brown laterites), dystrochrepts (brown podsols), and haplumbrepts (brown forest).

(plus those of Sitka Spruce Zone)

Typical associations
Wet: Tsuga heterophylla(TSHE) / Lysichitum americanum; TSHE / Athyrium filix-femina; TSHE / Oplopanax horridum / Polystichum munitum.
Mesic: Lower elevation: TSHE/Polystichum munitum; TSHE/Berberis nervosa-Gautheria; TSHE/Achyls triphylla. Drier: TSHE/Gaultheria shallon; TSHE/Cornus unalaschkensis-Achyls triphylla. Xeric: TSHE - Pseudotsuga menziesii/Holodiscus discolor; (TSHE)-Pseudotsuga menziesii - Arbutus menziesii; Abies grandis/Achyls triphylla; Quercus garryana (several associations). Higher elevations: TSHE/Vaccinium alaskense-Cornus; TSHE/ Vaccinium alaskense-Gaultheria.
Major subordinate species: Holodiscus discolor, Vaccinium parvifolium, Berberis nervosa, Gaultheria shallon, Polystichum munitum, Xerophyllum tenax, Athyrium filix-femina and many others.
Dry site subordinates: Berberis nervosa, Gaultheria shallon, Linnaea borealis.
Wet site subordinates: Oplopanax horridum, Athyrium filix-femina, Blechnum spicant, Viola glabella, Achlys triphylla, Lysichitum americanum.

Typical associations along a gradient from wet to dry: Thuja plicata/Tsuga hetterophylla/Oplopanax horridum/Athyrium filix-femina Thuja plicata/Acer circinatum/mixed herbs Tsuga heterophylla/Polystichum munitum/mixed herbs Pseudotsuga menziesii/Gaultheria shallon Pseudotsuga menziesii/Rhododendron macrophyllum

Succession: Invaders of clear cuts: Epilobium angustifolium, Cirsium vulgare, and Pteridium aquilinum; followed by shrub stage with Rubus ursinus, Acer circinatum, and Gaultheria shallon typical. Alnus rubra is most common natural invader, slowly replaced by conifer species, primarily Pseudotsuga menziesii.
Sepcial types: Edaphic prairies (e.g., Mima Mounds, Ebey's Prairie) in which forest never developed due to poor soil conditions and fire. Soils are glacial drifts with coarse texture, poor nutrient status, and well drained. Talus communities occur on steep slopes with unstable substrates. Acer circinatum usually dominates with many shrub species and the more xerophytic herbs and fern species.

Pacific Silver Fir (Abies amabilis) forest zone

Persistent winter snow packs help delimit this zone. It spans the gradient between the warm, moist Western Hemlock Zone and the very cold, moist Mountain Hemlock Zone. The forests are dominated by Douglas-fir and noble fir following large fires, but these species are eventually replaced by Pacific silver fir. This zone provides high values of many resources, but the prevailing cold climates dictate the type of management activities.

Distribution: Mid-montane slopes of Olympics and Cascades from Central BC to Oregon; requires moderate to heavy snow and mild summer temperatures.
Elevation: Usually between 600 and 1400 m; strongly influenced by topography, aspect, and snowpack.
Climate: Compared to Tsuga heterophylla zone, a much greater fraction of precipitation occurs as snow, up to 40%. At Snoqualmie Pass, annual precip. is 2600 mm, with less than 10% falling June to August. Winter snow packs are moderate, from one to three m, and temperatures are cool, with maximum summer temperature only 21°C.
Soil: Typically cryothods (podzols) with fairly thick litter accumulations; leached; acid.

Typical association along a gradient from wet to dry:

Wet, low: Abies amabilis(ABAM) / Oplopanax horridum;
Wet, higher: ABAM / Rhododendron albiflorum;
Mesic, lower: ABAM / V. alaskense; ABAM / Gaultheria shallon; ABAM / Berberis nerbosa;
Mesic, higher: ABAM/Tiarella unifoliata; ABAM/Achyls triphylla-Clintonia uniflora; ABAM / V. alaskense/Clintonia uniflora;
Higher, dry: ABAM / Vaccinium membranaceum / Xerophyllum tenax

Major subordinate species: many ericades including Vaccinium spp., Menziesia ferruginea, Gaultheria spp., Chimaphila spp., Rhododendron albiflorum, and Pyrola spp. Xerophyllum tenax, Rubus lasiococcus, Cornus canadensis, and Clintonia uniflora common.
Succession: disturbed sites invaded by Pseudotsuga or A. procera, which will not regenerate under canopy conditions. Abies amabilis is usually late to invade, coming in under a mixed conifer canopy.
Special types: Alnus sinuata avalanche track vegetation; mesic meadows dominated by Pteridium aquilinum, resulting from moisture seeps or due to shallow or unstable soil.

Key to Pacific silver fir associations

The following key was designed as an aid in identifying the upper elevation associations of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest and vicinity. Environmental and management information applicable to a given site is accessed by identifying the association using the key, then referring to the detailed association description. The step in using the key are:

1. Select a vegetationally uniform area about 25 feet (8 meters) in radius or 0.05 acre (0.02 ha) in size. The plot should be representative of a larger area of reasonably homogeneous vegetation.
2. First identify and list tree, shrub and herb species, then estimate the cover of each. Cover is estimated to the nearest percent, up to 10 percent cover and to the nearest 5 percent thereafter. Walk around the plot area.
3. Work step by step through the association key to a preliminary identification.
4. Review the association description to verify the identification.
5. Only after verification, note the management considerations for the association.

It is important to follow these steps rigorously since misidentification may lead to the wrong management considerations.The key is designed to be used in sequence. Always start at the beginning of the key and work systematically through.
The associations described in this guide are based on plot data collected throughout the forest and represent conceptual abstractions.In practice, few stands will conform exactly to the typical association description. Because vegetation varies continuously over the landscape, ecotones of transitional composition, which do not fit neatly into any described association, will be encountered. Such ecotones should be managed according to the characteristics of the associations between which they fall. In most cases, adjacent associations have similar management properties.There are about 50 common herb and shrub species used in the key and association descriptions.

Key to the plant associations and ecoclass codes for the upper elevation series, Gifford Pinchot National Forest.

Ecoclass

1. Tree cover in stand projected to stable state^* contains less than 10% ABAM and less than 10% TSME
   _______________________________________________________________ not included in key
2. Tree cover in stand projected to stable state contains at least 10% ABAM and/or 10% TSME ______ 3

3. Tree cover in stand projected to stable state contains at least 10% TSME
   ____________________________________________________ Mountain Hemlock Series 5

5. RHAL cover ≥ 5% ___________________ TSME/RHAL association CM S2-23. If not, go to 6
6. MEFE cover ≥ 5% ___________________ TSME/MEFE association CM S2-21. If not, go to 7
7. VAME cover ≥ 5%
   _________ TSME/VAME association CM S2-10. If not, it is undescribed TSME association

4. Tree cover in stand projected to stable state contains less than 10% TSME
   ______________________________________________________ Pacific Silver Fir Series 8

8. OPHO cover ≥ 5% __________________ ABAM/OPHO association CF S3-51. If not, go to 9
9. RHAL cover ≥ 5% __________________ ABAM/RHAL association CF S5-50. If not, go to 10
10. MEFE cover ≥ 5% __________________ ABAM/MEFE association CF S2-54. If not, go to 11
11. TIUN cover ≥ 5%; or TIUN cover at least 1% along with at least two wet site herbs
    _____________________________________________ ABAM/TIUN association CF F1-52
12. TIUN cover ≤ 5% and less than two wet site herbs present _______________________ 13

13. VAAL plus VAOV cover ≥ 5% ____________________________ go to 14. If not, go to 15

14. GASH cover ≥ 2% __________________ ABAM/VAAL-GASH association CF S2-55.
    

If not, it is ABAM/VAAL association CF S2-57

15. GASH cover ≥ 2% ______________________________ ABAM/GASH association CF S1-52
16. GASH cover ≤ 2% _______________________________________________________ 17

17. BENE cover ≥ 5% ___________________________ ABAM/BENE association CF S1-51
18. BENE cover ≤ 5% ____________________________________________________ 19

19. VAME cover ≥ 5% _________________________________________________ 21

21. Several plots other than XETE present, usually including CLUN and ACTR
    _____________________________ ABAM/VAME/CLUN association CF S2-56
22. XETE most prominent herb; other herbs inconspicuous
    _____________________________ ABAM/VAME/XETE association CF S2-51

23. VAME cover ≤ 5%, cover of herb layer at least 10%
    _________________________________ ABAM/ACTR-CLUN association CF F2-53

* stand condition at age 300 or more

Topik C, Halverson NM, Brockway DG. 1986. Plant association and management guide for the western hemlock zone. Pacific Northwest Region, USDA Forest Service

Lifeform Species             Wet Moist Dry Seral Comments

Trees
  Tsuga mertensiana          x   x
  Abies amabilis*            x   x               lower slopes
  Abies lasiocarpa*                    x   x
  Pinus contorta                       x   x
  Chamaecyparis nootkatensis x  x                higher slopes
Shrubs
  Vaccinium membranaceus*       x      x   x     fire tolerant
  Vaccinium alaskense           x
  Rhododendron albiflorum*   x  x
  Phyllodoce empetriformis      x          x
Herbs
  Erythronium montanum       x
  Pyrola secunda                x
  Rubus lasiococcus             x
  Valeriana sitchensis       x
  Veratrum viride            x  x
  Xerophyllum tenax*            x      x

Forest zones west of the Cascades

Lifeform  Species               Wet Moist Dry Seral Comments

Trees     Pinus ponderosa*          x     x    x
          Pseudotsuga menziesii*    x
          Pinus contorta                       x    fire
          Abies grandis             x
          Larix occidentalis              x    x    fire
Shrubs(a) Amelanchier alnifolia     x
          Arctostaphylos
            nevadensis*                   x
          Ceanothus velutinus             x    x    fire
          Prunus emarginata*        x     x
          Purshia tridentata              x
          Symphoricarpos albus*           x
Herbs     Achillea millefolium*           x
          Agropyron spicatum*             x
          Arenaria macrophylla            x
          Balsamorhiza saggitata          x
          Carex geyeri*                   x
          Festuca idahoensis*             x
          Phlox diffusa                   x
          Pteridium aquilinum*      x     x

Life form Species              Wet Moist Dry Seral Comments

Trees  Pseudotsuga menziesii*   x   x    x
       Pinus ponderosa*             x
       Pinus contorta                    x
       Larix occidentalis           x    x
       Abies grandis            x
Shrubs Amelanchier alnifolia    x   x
       Berberis nervosa         x
       Holodiscus discolor*     x   x
       Pachistima myrsinites*   x
       Prunus emarginata        x
       Rosa woodsii             x   x
       Spirea betulifolia*      x
       Symphoricarpos albus         x
Herbs  Achyls triphlla          x
       Coralorhiza sp.          x   x
       Cornus unalaschkensis    x   x
       Lupinus polyphyllus      x                  Openings
       Pyrola secunda           x

Life form/Species        Wet Moist Dry Seral Comments

Trees
  Abies grandis*              x
  Pseudotsuga menziesii*      x     x
  Pinus ponderosa                   x   x
  Picea engellmannii          x               Forest pockets
  Abies lasiocarpa                  x   x     Forest pockets
  Tsuga mertensiana       x                   High elevation
Shrubs
  Acer glabrum*           x
  Pachistima myrsinites*      x
  Vaccinium membranaceum*     x     x
  Rosa spp.                   x
Herbs
  Adenocaulon bicolor               x   x     Trail sides
  Arenaria macrophylla        x     x
  Arnica cordifolia       x   x
  Clintonia uniflora      x   x
  Linnaea borealis*           x
  Pyrola spp.             x   x               Dark habitats

Life form/Species         Wet Moist Dry Seral Comments

Trees
  Abies lasiocarpa*            x     x   x
  Picea engellmannii       x   x
  Pinus contorta                     x   x     Fires
  Larix lyallii            x   x               Highest slopes
  Pinus albicaulis                   x         Higher slopes
Shrubs
  Juniperus communis                 x
  Pachistima myrsinites*       x     x
  Vaccinium spp.               x
  Phyllodoce empetriformis x
Herbs
  Clintonia uniflora           x
  Luetkea pectinata            x     x   x
  Viola spp.               x   x

Taking notes on July 30 2014

Alaska